Table 1 Muscle activation when leading (T6) and trailing (T4) limbs toe-off event at three T_oral (Con, Δ1℃, Δ2℃) and heights (10%, 20%,30%).

Gluteus minimus

Leading

Con

3.78 ± 0.57

3.80 ± 0.54

3.87 ± 0.54

0.002^‡

0.002^†

0.036*

Δ1℃

3.83 ± 0.56

3.88 ± 0.53

3.93 ± 0.55

Δ2℃

4.06 ± 0.52

4.46 ± 0.55

4.55 ± 0.50

Trailing

Con

3.84 ± 0.44

4.24 ± 0.53

4.59 ± 0.51

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.003*

Δ1℃

4.04 ± 0.51

4.31 ± 0.65

4.77 ± 0.66

Δ2℃

4.33 ± 0.63

5.66 ± 0.77

5.94 ± 0.83

Gluteus medius

Leading

Con

6.74 ± 1.33

7.08 ± 1.61

7.11 ± 1.43

0.238

0.387

0.982

Δ1℃

7.01 ± 1.49

7.14 ± 1.58

7.19 ± 1.55

Δ2℃

7.34 ± 1.8

7.60 ± 1.84

7.76 ± 1.34

Trailing

Con

13.36 ± 3.27

13.85 ± 3.8

15.58 ± 3.33

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.002*

Δ1℃

14.92 ± 3.93

15.91 ± 4.52

17.61 ± 4.91

Δ2℃

15.78 ± 4.23

20.42 ± 5.21

23.39 ± 5.46

Adductor longus

Leading

Con

1.83 ± 0.74

2.03 ± 0.69

2.15 ± 0.42

0.141

0.33

0.980

Δ1℃

1.95 ± 0.88

2.08 ± 0.75

2.21 ± 0.32

Δ2℃

2.21 ± 1.19

2.28 ± 0.87

2.34 ± 0.54

Trailing

Con

0.46 ± 0.21

0.51 ± 0.21

0.76 ± 0.37

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.049*

Δ1℃

0.63 ± 0.37

0.71 ± 0.44

0.97 ± 0.47

Δ2℃

0.72 ± 0.53

1.29 ± 0.69

1.65 ± 0.79

Adductor magnus

Leading

Con

1.52 ± 0.55

1.73 ± 0.74

1.57 ± 0.41

0.053

0.279

0.966

Δ1℃

1.56 ± 0.57

1.71 ± 0.8

1.51 ± 0.41

Δ2℃

1.83 ± 0.75

1.95 ± 0.7

1.78 ± 0.62

Trailing

Con

1.300 ± 0.57

1.40 ± 0.69

1.50 ± 0.61

0.168

0.278

0.998

Δ1℃

1.43 ± 0.61

1.51 ± 0.74

1.69 ± 0.72

Δ2℃

1.49 ± 0.82

1.65 ± 0.78

1.77 ± 0.76

Quadratus femoris

Leading

Con

2.15 ± 0.48

2.06 ± 0.41

2.35 ± 0.38

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.033*

Δ1℃

2.14 ± 0.42

2.15 ± 0.35

2.39 ± 0.34

Δ2℃

2.38 ± 0.32

2.62 ± 0.38

2.90 ± 0.35

Trailing

Con

1.38 ± 0.36

1.47 ± 0.47

1.65 ± 0.41

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.015*

Δ1℃

1.57 ± 0.44

1.53 ± 0.55

1.83 ± 0.54

Δ2℃

1.60 ± 0.58

2.18 ± 0.61

2.55 ± 0.71

Adductor brevis

Leading

Con

1.11 ± 0.51

1.16 ± 0.48

1.20 ± 0.47

0.13

0.405

0.965

Δ1℃

1.15 ± 0.50

1.20 ± 0.62

1.28 ± 0.69

Δ2℃

1.30 ± 0.61

1.38 ± 0.72

1.48 ± 0.67

Trailing

Con

0.35 ± 0.20

0.43 ± 0.33

0.54 ± 0.37

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.026*

Δ1℃

0.44 ± 0.36

0.51 ± 0.38

0.61 ± 0.36

Δ2℃

0.57 ± 0.41

0.99 ± 0.63

1.42 ± 0.72

Obturator internus muscle

Leading

Con

3.15 ± 0.25

3.16 ± 0.35

3.26 ± 0.32

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.048*

Δ1℃

3.19 ± 0.3

3.2 ± 0.33

3.3 ± 0.36

Δ2℃

3.39 ± 0.32

3.64 ± 0.29

3.78 ± 0.36

Trailing

Con

2.53 ± 0.49

2.74 ± 0.55

3.21 ± 0.57

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.048*

Δ1℃

2.73 ± 0.54

2.95 ± 0.66

3.32 ± 0.61

Δ2℃

2.80 ± 0.62

3.55 ± 0.71

4.13 ± 0.71

Obturator externus muscle

Leading

Con

2.99 ± 0.49

3.37 ± 0.54

4.05 ± 0.59

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.004*

Δ1℃

3.05 ± 0.67

3.42 ± 0.58

4.11 ± 0.59

Δ2℃

3.5 ± 0.77

4.22 ± 0.57

5.37 ± 0.59

Trailing

Con

2.28 ± 0.58

2.20 ± 0.56

3.14 ± 0.57

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.049*

Δ1℃

2.53 ± 0.61

2.71 ± 0.78

3.33 ± 0.73

Δ2℃

2.86 ± 0.71

3.53 ± 0.87

4.49 ± 0.88

Pectineus

Leading

Con

3.18 ± 0.69

3.17 ± 0.78

3.64 ± 0.51

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.007*

Δ1℃

3.21 ± 0.79

3.23 ± 0.82

3.71 ± 0.49

Δ2℃

3.83 ± 0.75

4.67 ± 0.70

5.24 ± 0.70

Trailing

Con

1.19 ± 0.47

1.33 ± 0.54

2.08 ± 0.51

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.037*

Δ1℃

1.22 ± 0.67

1.51 ± 0.65

2.22 ± 0.82

Δ2℃

1.43 ± 0.78

2.4 ± 0.93

3.24 ± 0.93

Gemellus inferior

Leading

Con

0.69 ± 0.08

0.72 ± 0.11

0.8 ± 0.09

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.018*

Δ1℃

0.69 ± 0.09

0.73 ± 0.11

0.82 ± 0.10

Δ2℃

0.75 ± 0.12

0.84 ± 0.09

0.95 ± 0.09

Trailing

Con

0.47 ± 0.08

0.5 ± 0.09

0.6 ± 0.09

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.049*

Δ1℃

0.52 ± 0.09

0.55 ± 0.10

0.63 ± 0.12

Δ2℃

0.53 ± 0.09

0.66 ± 0.11

0.75 ± 0.13

Gemellus superior

Leading

Con

0.63 ± 0.07

0.67 ± 0.09

0.71 ± 0.07

 < 0.001^‡

0.001^†

0.022*

Δ1℃

0.63 ± 0.08

0.68 ± 0.10

0.74 ± 0.09

Δ2℃

0.68 ± 0.13

0.77 ± 0.10

0.86 ± 0.09

Trailing

Con

0.35 ± 0.05

0.41 ± 0.07

0.42 ± 0.07

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.048*

Δ1℃

0.40 ± 0.06

0.43 ± 0.08

0.44 ± 0.09

Δ2℃

0.42 ± 0.10

0.53 ± 0.09

0.58 ± 0.09

Gluteus maximus

Leading

Con

5.01 ± 0.37

4.61 ± 0.26

4.14 ± 0.30

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.003*

Δ1℃

5.01 ± 0.37

4.66 ± 0.22

4.23 ± 0.28

Δ2℃

5.27 ± 0.31

5.13 ± 0.21

4.97 ± 0.18

Trailing

Con

4.28 ± 0.42

3.46 ± 0.46

2.82 ± 0.48

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.047*

Δ1℃

4.39 ± 0.59

3.72 ± 0.58

3.11 ± 0.56

Δ2℃

4.62 ± 0.54

4.31 ± 0.60

3.84 ± 0.64

Piriformis

Leading

Con

3.96 ± 0.41

4.12 ± 0.46

4.9 ± 0.46

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

 < 0.001*

Δ1℃

3.99 ± 0.4

4.19 ± 0.4

4.95 ± 0.49

Δ2℃

4.19 ± 0.56

5.03 ± 0.46

5.98 ± 0.77

Trailing

Con

2.33 ± 0.23

2.38 ± 0.29

2.59 ± 0.38

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

 < 0.001*

Δ1℃

2.35 ± 0.26

2.40 ± 0.30

2.64 ± 0.39

Δ2℃

2.45 ± 0.23

3.19 ± 0.47

3.43 ± 0.55

Vastus lateralis

Leading

Con

0.92 ± 0.43

0.82 ± 0.50

0.77 ± 0.65

0.199

0.589

0.995

Δ1℃

0.93 ± 0.48

0.86 ± 0.64

0.75 ± 0.67

Δ2℃

1.06 ± 0.39

0.96 ± 0.72

0.84 ± 0.64

Trailing

Con

7.41 ± 1.16

7.53 ± 1.19

7.84 ± 1.21

0.164

0.677

0.994

Δ1℃

7.49 ± 1.12

7.73 ± 1.17

7.91 ± 1.23

Δ2℃

7.55 ± 1.62

7.93 ± 1.38

8.04 ± 1.48

Vastus medialis

Leading

Con

0.61 ± 0.23

0.51 ± 0.42

0.51 ± 0.48

0.325

0.509

0.999

Δ1℃

0.61 ± 0.27

0.55 ± 0.51

0.52 ± 0.49

Δ2℃

0.73 ± 0.29

0.63 ± 0.57

0.61 ± 0.57

Trailing

Con

5.86 ± 1.11

6.04 ± 1.21

6.29 ± 1.18

0.098

0.2

0.980

Δ1℃

5.91 ± 1.27

6.29 ± 1.34

6.61 ± 1.33

Δ2℃

6.39 ± 1.48

6.49 ± 1.49

6.86 ± 1.53

Vastus intermedius

Leading

Con

0.59 ± 0.38

0.53 ± 0.41

0.51 ± 0.57

0.331

0.842

0.996

Δ1℃

0.62 ± 0.42

0.53 ± 0.49

0.51 ± 0.61

Δ2℃

0.69 ± 0.39

0.60 ± 0.55

0.54 ± 0.66

Trailing

Con

5.93 ± 1.33

6.20 ± 1.08

6.50 ± 1.02

0.127

0.24

0.991

Δ1℃

6.18 ± 1.46

6.51 ± 1.17

6.71 ± 1.14

Δ2℃

6.51 ± 1.73

6.75 ± 1.25

6.82 ± 1.22

Rectus femoris

Leading

Con

7.85 ± 1.39

7.75 ± 1.78

7.30 ± 1.75

0.062

0.284

0.909

Δ1℃

7.93 ± 1.65

7.91 ± 1.79

7.55 ± 1.80

Δ2℃

8.79 ± 2.06

8.35 ± 2.01

7.99 ± 1.67

Trailing

Con

11.75 ± 1.74

11.57 ± 1.94

11.34 ± 1.96

0.411

0.093

0.990

Δ1℃

12.48 ± 2.05

12.36 ± 2.22

12.25 ± 2.32

Δ2℃

13.13 ± 2.54

12.97 ± 2.52

12.57 ± 2.59

Semitendinosus

Leading

Con

4.70 ± 0.42

4.87 ± 0.53

5.39 ± 0.59

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.002*

Δ1℃

4.76 ± 0.5

4.95 ± 0.54

5.50 ± 0.56

Δ2℃

4.93 ± 0.43

5.61 ± 0.48

6.42 ± 0.48

Trailing

Con

7.11 ± 1.28

7.34 ± 1.34

7.52 ± 1.45

0.069

0.204

0.992

Δ1℃

7.31 ± 1.58

7.54 ± 1.56

7.79 ± 1.56

Δ2℃

7.74 ± 1.76

8.18 ± 1.92

8.36 ± 1.82

Semimembranosus

Leading

Con

10.32 ± 1.32

10.24 ± 1.68

10.15 ± 1.54

0.14

0.952

0.86

Δ1℃

10.46 ± 1.52

10.4 ± 1.73

10.23 ± 1.66

Δ2℃

10.4 ± 1.59

10.42 ± 1.65

10.34 ± 1.77

Trailing

Con

12.48 ± 1.46

12.75 ± 1.78

13.05 ± 1.61

0.295

0.073

0.988

Δ1℃

13.34 ± 1.98

13.67 ± 2.08

13.73 ± 1.97

Δ2℃

13.91 ± 2.06

14.06 ± 2.13

14.16 ± 2.57

Biceps Femoris long head

Leading

Con

7.35 ± 0.56

7.46 ± 0.49

8.05 ± 0.63

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.034*

Δ1℃

7.40 ± 0.61

7.48 ± 0.48

8.10 ± 0.64

Δ2℃

7.60 ± 0.71

8.19 ± 0.49

8.91 ± 0.56

Trailing

Con

6.24 ± 0.92

6.06 ± 0.89

5.76 ± 0.73

0.056

0.102

0.987

Δ1℃

6.49 ± 0.92

6.36 ± 1.06

6.09 ± 1.20

Δ2℃

6.74 ± 1.10

6.69 ± 1.27

6.43 ± 1.38

Biceps femoris short head

Leading

Con

2.24 ± 0.49

2.61 ± 0.34

5.04 ± 0.56

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

 < 0.001*

Δ1℃

2.26 ± 0.55

2.67 ± 0.32

5.1 ± 0.56

Δ2℃

2.46 ± 0.55

3.64 ± 0.38

7.07 ± 0.59

Trailing

Con

5.46 ± 1.23

5.77 ± 1.46

5.99 ± 1.42

0.212

0.562

0.995

Δ1℃

5.62 ± 1.33

6.04 ± 1.79

6.17 ± 1.60

Δ2℃

5.83 ± 1.57

6.08 ± 1.98

6.36 ± 1.89

Sartorius

Leading

Con

3.01 ± 0.46

3.2 ± 0.34

3.62 ± 0.24

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

 < 0.001*

Δ1℃

3.01 ± 0.46

3.23 ± 0.35

3.66 ± 0.26

Δ2℃

3.24 ± 0.47

4.29 ± 0.31

5.48 ± 0.32

Trailing

Con

2.67 ± 0.52

3.10 ± 0.66

3.87 ± 0.65

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.035*

Δ1℃

3.08 ± 0.55

3.33 ± 0.72

4.19 ± 0.73

Δ2℃

3.21 ± 0.62

4.41 ± 0.81

5.00 ± 0.82

Gracilis muscle

Leading

Con

0.78 ± 0.12

0.82 ± 0.14

1.01 ± 0.21

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.036*

Δ1℃

0.79 ± 0.12

0.84 ± 0.12

1.05 ± 0.17

Δ2℃

1.04 ± 0.16

1.14 ± 0.19

1.15 ± 0.16

Trailing

Con

0.49 ± 0.08

0.60 ± 0.09

0.75 ± 0.11

 < 0.001^‡

 < 0.001^†

0.02*

Δ1℃

0.55 ± 0.11

0.62 ± 0.11

0.78 ± 0.12

Δ2℃

0.58 ± 0.12

0.75 ± 0.12

0.95 ± 0.13

Tensor fasciae lata

Leading

Con

3.70 ± 1.08

3.37 ± 1.62

3.91 ± 1.34

0.051

0.273

0.797

Δ1℃

3.92 ± 1.81

4.17 ± 1.45

4.70 ± 1.70

Δ2℃

4.20 ± 2.31

4.40 ± 2.29

5.07 ± 2.03

Trailing

Con

7.34 ± 1.21

7.69 ± 1.47

8.12 ± 1.4

0.051

0.457

0.999

Δ1℃

7.57 ± 1.49

7.87 ± 1.61

8.26 ± 1.90

Δ2℃

7.92 ± 1.79

8.21 ± 1.96

8.51 ± 1.91

Soleus

Leading

Con

0.01 ± 0.02

0.02 ± 0.04

0.02 ± 0.04

0.266

0.109

0.496

Δ1℃

0.03 ± 0.06

0.02 ± 0.05

0.02 ± 0.04

Δ2℃

0.06 ± 0.10

0.04 ± 0.05

0.02 ± 0.04

Trailing

Con

4.15 ± 1.22

4.33 ± 1.41

4.26 ± 1.47

0.678

0.549

0.996

Δ1℃

4.33 ± 1.48

4.51 ± 1.56

4.63 ± 1.66

Δ2℃

4.52 ± 1.67

4.64 ± 1.84

4.82 ± 1.95

Gastrocnemius

Leading

Con

0.91 ± 0.52

0.90 ± 0.39

1.03 ± 0.64

0.448

0.281

0.998

Δ1℃

0.91 ± 0.65

0.93 ± 0.69

1.05 ± 0.55

Δ2℃

1.11 ± 0.61

1.17 ± 0.84

1.22 ± 0.63

Trailing

Con

13.01 ± 1.94

13.11 ± 1.88

13.56 ± 1.84

0.226

0.145

0.995

Δ1℃

13.39 ± 2.00

13.88 ± 2.17

14.08 ± 2.14

Δ2℃

13.71 ± 2.12

14.10 ± 2.27

14.49 ± 2.60

Flexor digitorum longus

Leading

Con

0.16 ± 0.3

0.17 ± 0.33

0.17 ± 0.27

0.714

0.295

0.838

Δ1℃

0.2 ± 0.37

0.19 ± 0.38

0.22 ± 0.4

Δ2℃

0.44 ± 0.74

0.29 ± 0.54

0.33 ± 0.54

Trailing

Con

3.13 ± 1.24

3.29 ± 1.32

3.45 ± 2.17

0.517

0.757

0.942

Δ1℃

3.21 ± 1.86

3.34 ± 1.47

3.54 ± 1.83

Δ2℃

3.42 ± 1.53

3.49 ± 1.58

3.76 ± 1.61

Flexor hallucis longus

Leading

Con

0.01 ± 0.02

0.01 ± 0.02

0.01 ± 0.03

0.757

0.643

0.938

Δ1℃

0.01 ± 0.01

0.01 ± 0.03

0.01 ± 0.03

Δ2℃

0.02 ± 0.02

0.02 ± 0.02

0.01 ± 0.02

Trailing

Con

0.31 ± 0.13

0.33 ± 0.12

0.34 ± 0.12

0.127

0.052

0.99

Δ1℃

0.34 ± 0.15

0.37 ± 0.14

0.39 ± 0.14

Δ2℃

0.38 ± 0.15

0.41 ± 0.16

0.44 ± 0.17

Tibialis posterior

Leading

Con

0.62 ± 1.36

0.61 ± 1.37

0.31 ± 0.73

0.684

0.785

0.844

Δ1℃

0.76 ± 1.51

0.91 ± 2.02

0.66 ± 1.41

Δ2℃

0.82 ± 1.55

0.58 ± 1.07

0.75 ± 1.70

Trailing

Con

7.85 ± 1.57

8.14 ± 1.77

8.37 ± 1.61

0.619

0.102

0.996

Δ1℃

8.31 ± 1.66

8.37 ± 1.79

8.50 ± 1.82

Δ2℃

8.74 ± 1.91

8.77 ± 2.39

9.11 ± 2.29

Peroneus brevis

Leading

Con

12.55 ± 11.81

11.42 ± 10.49

10.6 ± 10.94

0.919

0.948

0.613

Δ1℃

12.92 ± 11.61

12.38 ± 10.21

12.24 ± 13.06

Δ2℃

11.33 ± 10.45

11.82 ± 10.75

14.33 ± 15.99

Trailing

Con

18.26 ± 5.40

19.33 ± 5.37

20.70 ± 5.25

0.059

0.205

0.997

Δ1℃

18.65 ± 6.02

20.03 ± 5.88

21.75 ± 5.73

Δ2℃

20.85 ± 6.77

21.38 ± 7.59

23.27 ± 7.58

Tibialis anterior

Leading

Con

1.29 ± 0.59

1.16 ± 0.79

1.41 ± 0.77

0.341

0.064

0.972

Δ1℃

1.45 ± 0.66

1.37 ± 0.78

1.51 ± 0.59

Δ2℃

1.78 ± 0.62

1.76 ± 1.09

1.84 ± 0.97

Trailing

Con

2.39 ± 0.39

2.47 ± 0.65

2.63 ± 0.7

0.294

0.061

0.999

Δ1℃

2.59 ± 0.56

2.61 ± 0.66

2.76 ± 0.86

Δ2℃

2.78 ± 0.69

2.82 ± 0.89

2.98 ± 0.92

Extensor digitorum longus

Leading

Con

2.02 ± 0.83

2.15 ± 1.10

2.30 ± 0.93

0.064

0.865

0.931

Δ1℃

1.94 ± 1.55

2.14 ± 0.72

2.25 ± 0.76

Δ2℃

1.95 ± 0.93

2.26 ± 1.19

2.52 ± 0.73

Trailing

Con

6.77 ± 1.45

6.93 ± 1.35

7.21 ± 1.78

0.383

0.222

0.998

Δ1℃

7.18 ± 1.59

7.22 ± 1.88

7.59 ± 2.09

Δ2℃

7.44 ± 1.75

7.53 ± 2.01

7.96 ± 2.51

Extensor hallucis longus

Leading

Con

1.83 ± 0.74

2.02 ± 0.68

2.14 ± 0.41

0.141

0.330

0.980

Δ1℃

1.95 ± 0.86

2.07 ± 0.74

2.21 ± 0.32

Δ2℃

2.21 ± 1.19

2.28 ± 0.87

2.34 ± 0.54

Trailing

Con

0.7 ± 0.15

0.72 ± 0.17

0.75 ± 0.19

0.249

0.589

0.976

Δ1℃

0.71 ± 0.2

0.74 ± 0.18

0.77 ± 0.24

Δ2℃

0.76 ± 0.28

0.79 ± 0.23

0.81 ± 0.35