Table 2 Climate change burdens and carbon capture efficiencies for solid-sorbent based DAC systems, reported by various LCA studies.

Source	Modelled TRL	Energy source	Climate change burdens [kg CO_2-eq/ton CO₂ captured]	Carbon capture efficiency (CCE) (%)
This study	Industrial scale	Grid-connected	14–640	36.0–98.6
	Industrial scale	Hybrid	16–509	49.1–98.4
	Industrial scale	Wind-connected	121–243	75.7–87.9
Deutz et al.¹⁵	Demonstration scale	Geothermal energy	69	93.1
	Demonstration scale	Grid electricity + heat from municipal waste incineration	146	85.4
	Industrial scale	Wind	120–50	88–95
Terlouw et al.¹⁴	Industrial scale	Fresnel & solar & battery	160–90	84–91
	Industrial scale	HTHP & solar & battery	110–210	79–89
	Industrial scale	HTHP & grid	50–910	9–95^a
	Industrial scale	Waste heat & grid	60–520	48–94
	Industrial scale	Waste heat & solar & battery	80–150	85–92
Madhu et al.¹⁶	Demonstration scale	Low-carbon energy supply	140	86
Qiu et al.¹¹	Industrial scale	Grid electricity (in 2020) & biomass or heat pump	60–640^b	36–94
Qiu et al.¹¹	Industrial scale	Grid electricity (in 2100) & biomass or heat pump	280–0^b	72–112^c
Casaban and Tsalaporta⁴⁸	Industrial scale	Wind	110–130	87–89

^aDependent on the country specific grid mix.
^bAlso includes the impacts of DAC systems with solvent based sorbents.
^cValue larger than 100% is due to a future grid electricity incorporating carbon capture technologies.

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