Table 1 Summary of relevant literature on the relationship between independent variables and both CO₂ emissions and economic growth.

Akram et al.²¹

Nonlinear panel ARDL

EE shows a significant influence in mitigating CO₂ emissions.

RE displays a negative correlation with CO₂ emissions.

GDP contributes to intensifying CO₂ emissions in BRICS countries.

Akram et al.³⁹

Fixed-effect panel quantile regression (PQR) and panel ordinary least squares

Energy efficiency mitigates CO₂ emissions. RE supports declining CO₂ emissions.

GDP leads to escalating CO₂ emissions.

Akram et al.²⁰

Nonlinear panel ARDL

EE and RE effectively contribute to reducing CO₂ emissions.

Economic growth leads to a rise in CO₂ emissions.

Nuclear energy insignificantly influences CO₂ emissions.

Ponce & Khan¹

FMOLS

EE and RE are negatively interconnected to CO₂ emissions.

GDP shows a positive connection with CO₂.

Irfan et al.²²

PMG

EE holds a significant positive effect on CO₂ emissions.

Renewable energy elucidates a statistically significant negative connection with CO₂ emissions and economic growth illustrating an insignificant impact on CO₂ emissions.

Cheng et al.³⁷

POLS and panel quantile regression methods

RE played a role in reducing per capita CO₂ emissions.

Bargaoui³⁵

Generalized method of moments (GMM)

EE promotes environmental Quality renewable energy displays an insignificant statistical consequence on environmental quality.

Saqib & Usman⁶

Quantile ARDL

Renewable energy contributes to lowering CO₂ emissions

Gyimah et al.³⁶

Two-stage least squares

RE leads to a surge in carbon emissions.

GDP has a statistically insignificant impact on CO₂ emissions.

Usman et al.³⁴

Augmented mean group (AMG)

Renewable energy helps mitigate environmental degradation.

Non-renewable energy deteriorates environmental degradation.

Renewable energy and nonrenewable are strongly support economic growth.

Bayar & Gavriletea¹¹

AMG

Energy efficiency has a favorable impact on economic growth.

Renewable energy has no significant influence on economic growth.

Kadir et al.¹²

Quantile ARDL

Labor, capital, carbon emissions, renewable energy, and energy efficiency are positively linked with the growth of GDP.

Marinaș et al.²³

PMG

An increase in renewable energy consumption leads to increases in GDP.

Tariq et al.⁷

FMOLS and panel dynamic ordinary least square (DOLS)

Efficiency of energy is inversely associated with greenhouse gas (GHG).

Xie et al.²⁶

Method of moments quantile regression

Renewable energy boosts growth