Fig. 1
Environmental parameters at the study site in Billefjorden, Svalbard. (a) Map of Billefjorden, Svalbard. Right upper corner: overview map of Svalbard; red rectangle: Billefjorden. A–C: Control area. D–F: Glacial run-off area; NSB: Nordenskjölbreen. G–I: Terrestrial run-off area; ED: Ebbadalen; HD: Hørbyedalen; RD: Ragnardalen; PYR: Pyramiden (uninhabited miner’s settlement). Yellow points, A–I: Position of kelp sampling. Purple points: Positions of CTD/PAR measurements. Red arrows: direction of run-off inflow. Map: RStudio, PlotSvalbard101. Satellite image fjord water: toposvalbard.npolar.no; 06.02.2023. (b,c) Section plots of environmental conditions in sampling areas in Billefjorden (control, glacial run-off, terrestrial run-off) from 0–10 m depth on 30th August 2022. Red arrow: direction of run-off inflow to the run-off areas. Note the different x-axis. Black dots (b) / white vertical lines (c): actual PAR/CTD measurements in water column. White areas within section plots: insufficient data to support the model. (b) Colour gradient: photosynthetically available radiation (PAR; µmol photons m−2 s−1; scale as log to highlight low PAR intensities). Contour: turbidity (NTU). Numbers above depth transects: PAR attenuation coefficient (Kd). c) Colour gradient: temperature (°C). Contour: salinity (SA).
