Table 2 Associations and influences of factors towards women experiencing IPV during pregnancy across low and LMIC countries.

From: Influence of spousal educational disparities on intimate partner violence (IPV) against pregnant women: a study of 30 countries

Characteristics

Sub-Sahara Africa

Angola

Benin

Burundi

Cameroon

Comoros

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

Husband’s Age Group

X2 = 5.06

  

X2 = 1.54

  

X2 = 4.02

  

X2 = 0.15

  

X2 = 5.64

  

 15–29

84 (31.82)

Ref

 

23 (17.98)

Ref

 

132 (24.05)

Ref

 

33 (15.93)

Ref

 

10 (19.30)

Ref

 

 30–44

137 (51.91)

1.11

0.79–1.56

72 (57.24)

1.24

0.73–2.11

291 (52.83)

1.01

0.84–1.41

114 (55.93)

1.02

0.65–1.58

29 (58.00)

0.94

0.40–2.19

 45–59

30 (11.40)

0.73

0.44–1.20

23 (18.25)

1.19

0.66–2.14

114 (20.85)

1.22

0.89–1.68

45 (22.20)

1.03

0.62–1.70

5 (10.00)

0.31

0.09–1.10

 60 and above

12 (4.56)

1.38

0.48–3.99

8 (6.34)

0.70

0.14–3.18

14 (2.28)

0.65

0.33–1.31

12 (5.93)

1.06

0.52–2.18

6 (11.92)

1.39

0.25–7.46

Residence

X2 = 4.99

  

X2 = 11.37ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 0.27

  

X2 = 4.52

  

X2 = 1.2

  

 Rural area

81 (30.62)

Ref

 

95 (74.94)

Ref

 

510 (92.47)

Ref

 

120 (58.89)

Ref

 

31 (62.43)

Ref

 

 Urban area

184 (69.38)

2.47

1.58–3.86*

31 (25.06)

0.48

0.30–0.78

41 (7.53)

1.42

1.01–2.01*

84 (41.11)

0.74

0.45–1.22

19 (37.57)

1.58

0.72–3.43

Wealth index

X2 = 13.41Ψ

  

X2 = 3.56

  

X2 = 10.04Ψ

  

X2 = 4.98

  

X2 = 1.53

  

 Middle

75 (28.11)

Ref

 

34 (26.78)

Ref

 

118 (21.44)

Ref

 

47 (23.06)

Ref

 

7 (14.01)

Ref

 

 Poor

106 (40.03)

1.14

0.69–1.89

48 (37.69)

0.87

0.53–1.40

279 (50.60)

1.09

0.84–1.40

93 (45.29)

0.91

0.54–1.53

21 (42.67)

1.52

0.65–3.51

 Rich

85 (31.87)

0.56

0.36–0.85**

44 (35.53)

0.73

0.43–1.24

154 (27.95)

0.81

0.59–1.12

65 (31.65)

0.69

0.42–1.14

22 (43.32)

2.03

062 − 6.60

Husband’s Education

X2 = 5.46

  

X2 = 5.36

  

X2 = 16.61ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 8.29

  

X2 = 3.42

  

 No education

37 (14.07)

Ref

 

56 (43.99)

Ref

 

232 (42.10)

Ref

 

34 (16.69)

Ref

 

18 (35.65)

Ref

 

 Primary

93 (35.04)

1.15

0.34–3.91

41 (32.17)

1.89

0.77–4.63

280 (50.83)

0.74

0.48–1.13

82 (40.12)

2.98

1.20–7.41*

13 (26.35)

0.65

0.12–3.31

 Secondary

122 (46.09)

0.89

0.25–3.22

25 (24.27)

1.80

0.63–5.11

30 (5.36)

0.40

0.22–0.74***

75 (36.51)

3.18

1.23–8.22*

11 (22.00)

0.64

0.16–2.45

 Higher

13 (4.80)

0.65

0.15–2.81

6 (5.82)

1.18

0.28–4.81

9 (1.63)

0.05

0.01–0.41

14 (6.67)

2.86

0.90–9.09

8 (16.00)

0.16

0.02–1.02

Husband’s Work Status

X2 = 1.02

  

X2 = 2.07

  

X2 = 0.42

  

X2 = 0.37

  

X2 = 0.27

  

 Not Working

21 (7.88)

Ref

 

0 (0.00)

Ref

 

21 (3.78)

Ref

 

6 (2.87)

Ref

 

2 (2.59)

Ref

 

 Working

244 (92.12)

1.39

0.82–2.36

126 (100)

Not available

 

530 (96.22)

1.09

0.64–1.85

203 (97.13)

1.46

0.38–5.57

49 (97.41)

1.92

0.36–2.12

Spouse education gap

X2 = 1.15

  

X2 = 7.63

  

X2 = 4.87

  

X2 = 7.29

  

X2 = 0.72

  

 Both are uneducated

31.5 (11.87)

Ref

 

46 (35.93)

Ref

 

161 (29.21)

Ref

 

29 (14.05)

Ref

 

11 (22.00)

Ref

 

 Spouse higher educated than respondent

174 (65.56)

0.77

0.20–2.90

49 (38.34)

0.82

0.30–2.23

223 (40.63)

1.57

0.97–2.56

83 (40.81)

0.43

0.15–1.24

19 (38.00)

2.20

0.34–1.29

 Spouse lower educated than respondent

36 (13.49)

0.74

0.23–2.41

20 (15.87)

1.66

0.76–3.62

126 (23.00)

1.11

0.78–1.55

53 (26.15)

0.83

0.33–2.10

12 (24.00)

1.11

0.24–5.05

 Both are highly educated

24 (9.09)

0.69

0.16–3.06

11 (8.73)

1.03

0.28–3.80

41 (7.16)

1.06

0.04–0.15

39 (18.99)

0.61

0.22–1.73

8 (16.00)

1.76

0.21–4.50

Characteristics

Sub-Sahara Africa

Cote d’Ivoire

Ethiopia

Kenya

Madagascar

Malawi

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

Husband’s Age Group

X2 = 17.13Ψ

  

X2 = 14.33

  

X2 = 9.76

  

X2 = 10.53Ψ

  

X2 = 9.86

  

 15–29

47 (19.97)

Ref

 

12 (10.11)

Ref

 

87 (15.52)

Ref

 

76 (37.57)

Ref

 

42 (20.38)

Ref

 

 30–44

137 (57.75)

0.68

0.42–1.08

60 (52.91)

1.71

0.74–3.94

341 (60.51)

1.29

0.93–1.80

99 (48.80)

0.92

0.61–1.38

118 (57.06)

1.59

1.02–2.50

 45–59

39 (16.37)

0.41

0.22–0.76***

35 (30.70)

2.85

1.10–7.34*

112 (19.95)

1.02

0.71–1.47

26 (13.63)

0.68

0.40–1.14

38 (18.61)

1.96

1.10–3.51*

 60 and above

14 (5.90)

0.62

0.29–1.32

7 (6.14)

0.67

0.15–2.99

23 (4.01)

1.70

0.97–2.98

0 (0.00)

Not available

 

8 (3.88)

0.60

0.14–2.66

Residence

X2 = 3.21

  

X2 = 0.52

  

X2 = 7.31

  

X2 = 5.15Ψ

  

X2 = 10.77Ψ

  

 Rural area

130 (54.88)

Ref

 

102 (88.82)

Ref

 

379 (67.27)

Ref

 

158 (77.97)

Ref

 

158 (76.52)

Ref

 

 Urban area

107 (45.12)

1.31

0.72–2.41

12 (11.18)

1.20

0.48–3.09

184 (32.73)

1.13

0.82–1.55

43 (22.03)

1.43

0.96–2.13

48 (23.48)

2.09

1.20–3.67**

Wealth index

X2 = 2.51

  

X2 = 2.19

  

X2 = 27.11ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 3.77

  

X2 = 8.87

  

 Middle

42 (17.71)

Ref

 

21 (17.89)

Ref

 

110 (19.57)

Ref

 

51 (25.34)

Ref

 

25 (12.25)

Ref

 

 Poor

100 (42.17)

1.17

0.62–2.23

56 (49.07)

1.37

0.61–3.03

252 (44.71)

1.18

0.89–1.55

66 (32.77)

0.88

0.57–1.37

95 (46.02)

2.08

1.13–3.81*

 Rich

95 (40.12)

1.17

0.69–1.97

37 (33.04)

1.18

0,46-3.01

201 (35.72)

0.90

0.63–1.29

84 (41.90)

0.71

0.47–1.09

86 (41.73)

1.53

0.79–2.96

Husband’s Education

X2 = 11.66

  

X2 = 7.79

  

X2 = 78.88ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 14.63ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 1.19

  

 No education

107 (45.05)

Ref

 

60 (52.63)

Ref

 

29 (5.07)

Ref

 

19 (9.56)

Ref

 

16 (7.98)

Ref

 

 Primary

69 (29.39)

2.58

1.17–5.67*

38 (32.97)

0.53

0.13–2.13

296 (52.55)

1.46

0.72–2.96

94 (46.53)

1.11

0.59–2.13

120 (58.14)

1.36

0.60–3.12

 Secondary

53 (22.50)

2.44

1.05–5.67*

6 (5.63)

0.38

0.07–1.98

192 (34.18)

1.07

0.52–2.21

81 (40.28)

1.49

0.70–3.20

60 (29.02)

1.19

0.46–3.14

 Higher

8 (3.06)

1.25

0.38–4.07

10 (8.77)

0.11

0.02–0.67

46 (8.20)

0.37

0.17–0.85*

7 (3.62)

1.24

0.42–3.70

10 (4.86)

0.96

0.27–3.48

Husband’s Work Status

X2 = 11.45Ψ

  

X2 = 1.24

  

X2 = 1.88

  

X2 = 0.18

  

X2 = 0.68

  

 Not Working

10 (4.30)

Ref

 

12 (10.15)

Ref

 

37 (6.52)

Ref

 

7 (1.94)

Ref

 

14 (6.85)

Ref

 

 Working

227 (95.70)

0.35

0.12–1.01

102 (89.45)

0.69

0.13–3.58

526 (93.48)

1.45

0.98–2.14

194 (98.06)

0.76

0.28–2.08

192 (93.15)

1.20

0.64–2.23

Spouse education gap

X2 = 10.04

  

X2 = 3.75

  

X2 = 17.57Ψ

  

X2 = 24.79ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 5.48

  

 Both are uneducated

88 (37.18)

Ref

 

58 (50.45)

Ref

 

19 (3.53)

Ref

 

10 (4.97)

Ref

 

7 (3.25)

Ref

 

 Spouse higher educated than respondent

96 (40.40)

0.50

0.20–1.25

31 (27.19)

1.51

0.32–7.18

254 (45.15)

1.57

0.74–3.34

80 (39.80)

5.71

3.35–7.65

129 (62.60)

1.32

0.47–3.72

 Spouse lower educated than respondent

46 (19.52)

1.04

0.55–1.97

16 (13.99)

1.26

0.43–3.65

152 (26.98)

1.17

0.58–2.36

85 (42.16)

2.49

1.60–3.32

54 (26.07)

1.46

0.59–3.64

 Both are highly educated

7 (2.90)

0.41

0.12–1.41

9 (7.89)

2.21

0.27–7.93

117 (3.53)

0.90

0.42–1.94

26 (12.69)

1.07

1.91–3.06

17 (8.09)

0.69

0.20–2.38

Characteristics

Sub-Sahara Africa

Mali

Mauritania

Mozambique

Nigeria

Sierra Leone

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

Husband’s Age Group

X2 = 6.59

  

X2 = 0.58

  

X2 = 4.62

  

X2 = 7.09

  

X2 = 9.36

  

 15–29

20 (10.67)

Ref

 

2 (9.24)

Ref

 

51 (29.44)

Ref

 

50 (12.69)

Ref

 

24 (12.70)

Ref

 

 30–44

113 (60.95)

1.56

0.83–2.95

11 (55.42)

0.80

0.12–5.20

95 (54.45)

1.07

0.73–1.58

226 (57.04)

0.84

0.56–1.24

111 (58.93)

1.41

0.82–2.42

 45–59

40 (22.07)

1.05

0.52–2.08

7 (32.11)

0.77

0.11–5.22

23 (13.63)

0.65

0.34–1.23

103 (25.91)

0.81

0.53–1.19

42 (22.49)

0.86

0.48–1.55

 60 and above

12 (6.30)

0.90

0.40–2.05

1 (3.23)

0.33

0.02–4.78

5 (2.48)

0.87

0.30–2.53

17 (4.36)

0.59

0.33–1.07

11 (5.88)

0.84

0.40–1.77

Residence

X2 = 1.83

  

X2 = 3.38Ψ

  

X2 = 9.71ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 0.00

  

X2 = 5.85Ψ

  

 Rural area

159 (85.59)

Ref

 

16 (76.60)

Ref

 

109 (62.41)

Ref

 

213 (53.70)

Ref

 

141 (74.58)

Ref

 

 Urban area

26 (14.41)

0.67

0.36–1.23

5 (23.40)

0.64

0.22–1.84

66 (37.59)

1.26

0.80–1.98

184 (46.30)

0.91

0.67–1.24

48 (25.42)

0.85

0.52–1.39

Wealth index

X2 = 0.57

  

X2 = 5.13

  

X2 = 16.88ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 1.39

  

X2 = 11.30Ψ

  

 Middle

38 (20.81)

Ref

 

6 (29.55)

Ref

 

31 (17.72)

Ref

 

80 (20.13)

Ref

 

52 (27.50)

Ref

 

 Poor

83 (45.14)

1.20

0.78–1.85

12 (56.24)

0.83

0.27–2.57

59 (33.66)

Not available

0.61–1.64

134 (33.91)

1.09

0.76–1.60

93 (49.20)

0.73

0.47–1.12

 Rich

64 (34.05)

1.17

0.68–2.03

3 (14.21)

0.37

0.13–1.05

85 (48.61)

1.81

1.08–3.01*

182 (45.95)

1.04

0.73–1.48

44 (23.31)

0.52

0.31–0.87*

Husband’s Education

X2 = 5.96

  

X2 = 2.43

  

X2 = 10.31Ψ

  

X2 = 34.00ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 2.30

  

 No education

132 (71.35)

Ref

 

15 (70.80)

Ref

 

23 (13.10)

Ref

 

78 (19.68)

Ref

 

96 (50.97)

Ref

 

 Primary

22 (11.98)

2.58

1.12–5.94*

5 (22.43)

0.13

0.02–1.02

113 (64.67)

1.41

0.60–3.32

62 (15.63)

1.79

0.70–4.57

19 (10.01)

0.84

0.27–2.56

 Secondary

24 (13.12)

2.99

1.23–7.7.24*

1 (6.77)

0.04

0.00-0.65

34 (19.60)

0.94

0.36–2.47

207 (52.22)

2.32

0.91–5.95

58 (30.84)

0.76

0.25–2.29

 Higher

7 (3.78)

0.83

0.19–3.53

0 (0.00)

Not available

 

5 (2.62)

1.35

0.39–4.64

49 (12.46)

1.31

0.47–3.59

15 (8.19)

0.72

0.20–2.52

Husband’s Work Status

X2 = 0.13

  

X2 = 0.24

  

X2 = 0.25

  

X2 = 4.61Ψ

  

X2 = 1.18

  

 Not Working

17 (9.12)

Ref

 

3 (15.79)

Ref

 

6 (3.23)

Ref

 

5 (1.17)

Ref

 

8 (4.42)

Ref

 

 Working

168 (90.88)

0.81

0.42–1.58

17 (84.21)

1.51

0.50–4.56

169 (96.77)

1.18

0.45–3.08

392 (98.83)

2.25

0.94–5.38

181 (95.58)

1.17

0.53–2.61

Spouse education gap

X2 = 3.75

  

X2 = 6.11

  

X2 = 8.35Ψ

  

X2 = 16.85ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 3.44

  

 Both are uneducated

115 (62.17)

Ref

 

3 (16.67)

Ref

 

17 (9.73)

Ref

 

66 (16.76)

Ref

 

77 (40.63)

Ref

 

 Spouse higher educated than respondent

27 (14.72)

0.39

0.16–0.97*

6 (27.55)

4.72

3.79–5.09

117 (66.85)

1.31

0.50–3.46

166 (41.85)

0.92

0.36–2.33

79 (41.56)

1.85

0.62–5.54

 Spouse lower educated than respondent

25 (18.88)

1.09

0.64–1.84

12 (55.78)

5.20

1.84–4.65

25 (14.05)

0.95

0.40–2.25

66 (16.55)

1.21

0.52–2.75

25 (13.37)

0.99

0.58–1.72

 Both are highly educated

8 (4.23)

0.52

0.15–1.74

0 (0.00)

Not available

 

16 (9.37)

1.10

0.37–3.26

98 (24.83)

0.79

0.31–2.07

8 (4.43)

1.59

0.42–6.07

Characteristics

Sub-Sahara Africa

Tanzania

Togo

Uganda

Zambia

Zimbabwe

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

Husband’s Age Group

X2 = 13.92Ψ

  

X2 = 6.23

  

X2 = 5.64

  

X2 = 13.13Ψ

  

X2 = 10.52Ψ

  

 15–29

129 (26.21)

Ref

 

62 (18.88)

Ref

 

160 (26.70)

Ref

75 (23.78)

75 (23.78)

Ref

 

64 (29.22)

Ref

 

 30–44

256 (51.92)

0.85

0.65–1.12

187 (57.08)

0.88

0.63–1.24

315 (52.46)

1.21

0.97–1.52

199 (62.97)

1.28

0.83–1.96

108 (49.81)

0.62

0.42–0.91

 45–59

84 (17.07)

0.62

0.44–0.88***

66 (20.13)

0.63

0.42–0.96*

116 (19.38)

1.23

0.93–1.63

35 (11.07)

0.67

0.42–1.07

41 (18.66)

0.67

0.40–1.11

 60 and above

24 (4.80)

1.07

0.62–1.86

13 (3.90)

0.56

0.30–1.04

9 (1.46)

0.58

0.29–1.16

7 (2.21)

0.75

0.24–2.37

5 (2.31)

0.48

0.16–1.40

Residence

X2 = 34.39ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 1.12

  

X2 = 15.67ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 0.00

  

X2 = 1.17

  

 Rural area

403 (81.82)

Ref

 

210 (64.09)

Ref

 

508 (84.46)

Ref

 

192 (60.68)

Ref

 

152 (69.89)

Ref

 

 Urban area

90 (18.18)

0.81

0.56–1.16

118 (35.91)

1.36

0.70–2.66

93 (15.54)

0.99

0.73–1.35

124 (39.32)

1.01

0.69–1.49

66 (30.11)

0.96

0.50–1.82

Wealth index

X2 = 57.86ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 3.83

  

X2 = 73.78ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 9.44

  

X2 = 4.36

  

 Middle

117 (23.85)

Ref

 

74 (22.61)

Ref

 

112 (18.60)

Ref

 

40 (12.70)

Ref

 

32 (14.76)

Ref

 

 Poor

252 (51.25)

1.03

0.76–1.39

134 (40.84)

1.01

0.74–1.39

342 (56.85)

1.58

1.24–2.01***

148 (46.89)

1.68

1.16–2.43***

101 (46.59)

1.33

0.81–2.19

 Rich

123 (24.90)

0.60

0.42–0.87***

120 (36.54)

0.71

0.35–1.42

147 (24.54)

0.75

0.55–1.03

128 (40.41)

1.83

1.18–2.82***

84 (38.65)

1.38

0.67–2.84

Husband’s Education

X2 = 23.41ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 12.62Ψ

  

X2 = 41.65ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 11.37

  

X2 = 8.78

  

 No education

82 (16.75)

Ref

 

89 (27.18)

Ref

 

38 (6.31)

Ref

 

20 (6.19)

Ref

 

7 (3.00)

Ref

 

 Primary

351 (71.26)

0.75

0.46–1.24

115 (35.16)

0.99

0.54–1.81

390 (64.92)

1.18

0.68–2.03

132 (41.79)

1.12

0.57–2.22

57 (26.18)

0.52

0.18–1.54

 Secondary

52 (10.56)

0.58

0.30–1.13

112 (34.23)

0.71

0.39–1.30

143 (23.83)

0.99

0.54–1.80

154 (48.83)

0.99

0.39–2.49

122 (57.81)

0.39

0.13–1.24

 Higher

7 (1.42)

0.11

0.03–0.41

11 (3.43)

0.42

0.17–1.05

30 (4.95)

0.49

0.24–1.05

10 (3.19)

0.33

0.11–1.01

32 (16.01)

0.21

0.05–0.80*

Husband’s Work Status

X2 = 2.09

  

X2 = 4.46

  

X2 = 0.00

  

X2 = 2.29

  

X2 = 0.58

  

 Not Working

8 (1.65)

Ref

 

10 (3.15)

Ref

 

19 (3.17)

Ref

 

40 (12.75)

Ref

 

30 (13.61)

Ref

 

 Working

484 (98.35)

0.58

0.26–1.31

317 (96.85)

0.39

0.18–0.85*

582 (96.83)

1.14

0.68–1.90

276 (87.25)

0.79

0.42–1.48

188 (86.39)

1.35

0.87–2.10

Spouse education gap

X2 = 18.96ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 4.06

  

X2 = 1.76

  

X2 = 2.66

  

X2 = 8.53

  

 Both are uneducated

34 (6.85)

Ref

 

68 (20.66)

Ref

 

17 (2.86)

Ref

 

8 (2.38)

Ref

 

8 (3.66)

Ref

 

 Spouse higher educated than respondent

188 (38.28)

1.86

0.90–3.83

187 (57.17)

0.94

0.48–1.81

345 (57.42)

1.61

0.79–3.24

179 (56.74)

0.99

0.33–3.03

110 (50.45)

1.12

0.10–2.59

 Spouse lower educated than respondent

115 (23.39)

1.51

0.80–2.83

55 (16.81)

0.96

0.58–1.57

162 (26.97)

1.52

0.78–2.97

77 (24.28)

1.15

0.45–2.97

53 (24.22)

0.93

0.09–9.91

 Both are highly educated

155 (31.48)

1.12

0.55–2.26

18 (5.36)

0.82

0.35–1.92

77 (12.75)

1.58

0.74–3.39

52 (16.61)

1.05

0.36–3.08

47 (21.55)

0.64

0.06–7.41

Characteristics

South and Southeast Asia

Cambodia

Nepal

Pakistan

Philippines

Timor-Leste

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

Husband’s Age Group

X2 = 5.06

  

X2 = 0.15

  

X2 = 9.76

  

X2 = 10.53Ψ

  

X2 = 8.55

  

 15–29

9 (17.38)

Ref

 

43 (21.12)

Ref

 

32 (14.01)

Ref

 

52 (16.77)

Ref

 

19 (25.92)

Ref

 

 30–44

30 (58.82)

1.16

0.44-3.00

113 (55.50)

0.99

0.68–1.43

114 (50.22)

1.41

0.83–2.38

174 (56.66)

0.97

0.63–1.49

36 (48.43)

0.63

0.33–1.19

 45–59

6 (11.93)

0.76

0.23–2.52

43 (21.60)

0.95

0.56–1.62

76 (33.49)

1.74

0.98–3.09

77 (24.91)

0.99

0.53–1.87

13 (18.63)

0.51

0.21–1.21

 60 and above

6 (11.76)

0.39

0.04–3.72

5 (1.78)

1.11

0.29–4.27

5 (2.28)

1.02

0.33–3.10

5 (1.67)

1.43

0.52–3.95

5 (6.97)

1.97

0.45–8.50

Residence

X2 = 4.99

  

X2 = 4.52

  

X2 = 7.31

  

X2 = 5.15Ψ

  

X2 = 0.31

  

 Rural area

31 (62.21)

Ref

 

79 (38.98)

Ref

 

160 (70.41)

Ref

 

144 (46.69)

Ref

 

58 (78.40)

Ref

 

 Urban area

19 (37.79)

1.65

0.87–3.15

124 (61.02)

1.01

0.70–1.46

67 (29.59)

0.93

0.60–1.44

164 (53.31)

1.24

0.89–1.73

15 (21.60)

0.70

0.33–1.48

Wealth index

X2 = 13.41Ψ

  

X2 = 4.98

  

X2 = 27.11ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 3.77

  

X2 = 1.05

  

 Middle

6 (11.69)

Ref

 

52 (25.47)

Ref

 

50 (21.78)

Ref

 

89 (28.99)

Ref

 

12 (16.55)

Ref

 

 Poor

28 (55.32)

2.29

0.89–5.89

111 (54.59)

1.02

0.67–1.54

113 (49.66)

0.96

0.58–1.58

159 (51.59)

0.72

0.48–1.08

33 (44.62)

1.33

0.67–2.64

 Rich

17 (32.99)

1.31

0.40–4.31

40 (19.94)

0.49

0.28–0.84***

65 (28.56)

0.81

0.41–1.54

60 (19.41)

0.46

0.20–1.01

28 (38.83)

1.59

0.79–3.18

Husband’s Education

X2 = 5.46

  

X2 = 8.29

  

X2 = 78.88ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 14.63ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 1.09

  

 No education

8 (15.06)

Ref

 

48 (23.60)

Ref

 

95 (41.87)

Ref

 

5 (0.87)

Ref

 

20 (27.15)

Ref

 

 Primary

24 (47.05)

2.25

0.64–7.89

108 (53.41)

0.52

0.24–1.13

44 (19.19)

0.86

0.26–2.90

66 (21.52)

1.53

0.40–5.79

13 (17.84)

0.98

0.31–3.15

 Secondary

12 (23.55)

0.87

0.25–3.07

41 (20.26)

0.25

0.11–0.56**

66 (29.11)

0.66

0.19–2.29

174 (57.10)

0.74

0.19–2.88

30 (40.86)

1.24

0.33–4.67

 Higher

6 (11.76)

1.27

0.12–3.75

6 (2.74)

0.22

0.06–0.80

22 (9.82)

0.34

0.09–1.28

63 (20.51)

0.46

0.11–1.92

10 (14.16)

1.59

0.36–6.96

Husband’s Work Status

X2 = 1.02

  

X2 = 0.37

  

X2 = 1.88

  

X2 = 0.18

  

X2 = 0.66

  

 Not Working

0 (0.00)

Ref

 

10 (4.74)

Ref

 

19 (8.04)

Ref

 

7 (2.18)

Ref

 

19 (28.85)

Ref

 

 Working

50 (100.00)

Not available

 

193 (95.26)

0.34

0.15–0.74***

209 (91.96)

0.43

0.21–0.87*

301 (97.82)

1.98

0.73–5.34

54 (73.15)

0.81

0.41–1.58

Spouse education gap

X2 = 1.15

  

X2 = 7.29

  

X2 = 17.57Ψ

  

X2 = 24.79ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 1.35

  

 Both are uneducated

6 (11.65)

Ref

 

36 (17.80)

Ref

 

83 (36.39)

Ref

 

9 (2.91)

Ref

 

13 (18.29)

Ref

 

 Spouse higher educated than respondent

24 (48.38)

0.29

0.06–1.43

108 (52.99)

1.86

0.77–4.50

93 (40.64)

1.08

0.31–3.73

115 (37.21)

7.01

0.63–7.75

31 (42.54)

1.04

0.25–4.22

 Spouse lower educated than respondent

12 (24.00)

0.31

0.08–1.10

44 (21.45)

1.36

0.66–2.82

29 (12.61)

0.79

0.32–1.93

106 (34.34)

4.39

0.42–6.39

18 (24.74)

0.89

0.28–2.77

 Both are highly educated

8 (16.00)

0.04

0.00-0.45

16 (7.75)

1.29

0.46–3.58

24 (10.36)

1.28

0.33–4.99

79 (25.86)

5.11

0.45–7.21

11 (14.43)

0.69

0.15–3.13

Characteristics

Latin America & Caribbean

North Africa & West Asia

Oceania

Haiti

Honduras

Egypt

Jordan

Papua New Guinea

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

N (%)

AOR

95% CI

Husband’s Age Group

X2 = 9.95

  

X2 = 20.85ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 11.63

  

X2 = 7.15

  

X2 = 7.35

  

 15–29

45 (26.43)

Ref

 

235 (31.59)

Ref

 

76 (22.03)

Ref

 

14 (12.52)

Ref

 

128 (23.56)

Ref

 

 30–44

85 (49.55)

0.64

0.40–0.99*

344 (46.28)

0.84

0.67–1.05

168 (48.92)

0.61

0.42–0.88

47 (43.08)

0.66

0.28–1.58

311 (57.16)

0.83

0.61–1.12

 45–59

33 (19.71)

0.54

0.27–1.05

131 (17.63)

0.85

0.65–1.11

88 (25.66)

0.51

0.35–0.75***

43 (39.56)

0.72

0.27–1.92

100 (18.73)

0.75

0.49–1.15

 60 and above

8 (4.31)

0.76

0.32–1.75

33 (4.50)

1.75

1.07–2.86*

12 (3.39)

0.75

0.28–2.02

6 (4.83)

0.98

0.22–4.36

5 (0.56)

0.34

0.08–1.45

Residence

X2 = 0.10

  

X2 = 16.10ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 0.01

  

X2 = 1.36

  

X2 = 0.63

  

 Rural area

108 (63.28)

Ref

 

343 (46.19)

Ref

 

224 (65.43)

Ref

 

8 (6.93)

Ref

 

489 (89.73)

Ref

 

 Urban area

63 (38.72)

1.26

0.68–2.34

400 (53.81)

1.72

1.35–2.20***

119 (34.57)

1.42

0.95–2.11

102 (93.07)

1.55

0.73–3.27

56 (10.27)

1.01

0.57–1.78

Wealth index

X2 = 3.96

  

X2 = 29.29ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 3.81

  

X2 = 3.91

  

X2 = 15.01Ψ

  

 Middle

35 (20.16)

Ref

 

209 (28.13)

Ref

 

86 (25.01)

Ref

 

15 (13.62)

Ref

 

143 (26.33)

Ref

 

 Poor

81 (47.31)

1.21

0.60–2.42

287 (38.66)

0.78

0.60–1.03

135 (39.34)

0.92

0.65–1.30

49 (44.14)

1.26

0.55–2.87

188 (34.49)

0.66

0.44–1.01

 Rich

55 (32.53)

0.78

0.39–1.53

247 (33.21)

0.65

0.50–0.84***

122 (35.65)

0.78

0.53–1.16

46 (42.24)

1.98

0.70–5.57

213 (39.19)

0.71

0.49–1.03

Husband’s Education

X2 = 2.43

  

X2 = 20.47ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 30.18ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 12.77

  

X2 = 12.31

  

 No education

34 (19.67)

Ref

 

54 (7.33)

Ref

 

70 (20.32)

Ref

 

5 (4.54)

Ref

 

97 (17.81)

Ref

 

 Primary

55 (32.22)

0.68

0.32–1.46

515 (69.36)

Not available

0.67–1.51

63 (18.49)

0.68

0.36–1.28

16 (14.24)

0.59

0.10–3.26

235 (43.23)

0.60

0.32–1.11

 Secondary

73 (42.87)

0.74

0.32–1.71

134 (18.08)

0.69

0.43–1.11

185 (53.79)

0.45

0.23–0.86*

69 (62.79)

0.36

0.07–1.79

156 (28.70)

0.71

0.33–1.54

 Higher

9 (5.25)

0.53

0.17–1.60

39 (5.23)

0.32

0.14–0.72***

25 (7.39)

0.18

0.08–0.39***

20 (18.43)

0.13

0.02–0.93*

56 (10.26)

1.06

0.39–2.87

Husband’s Work Status

X2 = 0.46

  

X2 = 0.28

  

X2 = 0.01

  

X2 = 23.04ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 2.00

  

 Not Working

11 (6.20)

Ref

 

6 (0.80)

Ref

 

9 (2.73)

Ref

 

39 (35.20)

Ref

 

259 (47.49)

Ref

 

 Working

160 (93.80)

0.83

0.40–1.69

738 (99.19)

1.49

0.18–12.75

333 (97.27)

1.17

0.46–2.95

71 (64.80)

0.44

0.20–0.98*

286 (52.51)

1.02

0.71–1.47

Spouse education gap

X2 = 2.72

  

X2 = 18.83ΨΨΨ

  

X2 = 10.24

  

X2 = 8.91

  

X2 = 24.51ΨΨΨ

  

 Both are uneducated

18 (10.72)

Ref

 

26 (3.52)

Ref

 

46 (13.55)

Ref

 

7 (7.77)

Ref

 

37 (6.87)

Ref

 

 Spouse higher educated than respondent

97 (56.76)

1.53

0.59–3.95

273 (36.81)

0.79

0.47–1.33

156 (45.46)

1.80

0.86–3.75

41 (45.55)

7.74

3.56–8.39

271 (49.79)

2.89

1.25–6.69*

 Spouse lower educated than respondent

41 (23.91)

1.15

0.53–2.52

306 (41.14)

0.56

0.34–0.92*

75 (21.82)

0.93

0.50–1.75

20 (19.68)

3.51

0.28–3.56

159 (29.11)

3.12

1.58–6.14***

 Both are highly educated

15 (8.61)

1.05

0.35–3.11

138 (18.54)

0.47

0.27–0.82***

66 (19.18)

1.27

0.58–2.79

22 (19.68)

3.53

0.24–5.84

77 (14.23)

2.58

1.14–5.85*

  1. Denote: (N (%) = Number (percentage) of IPV-experienced women during pregnancy categorized by factors, P-value indication: * = P-value < 0.05, ** = P-value < 0.01, *** = P-value < 0.001, Chi2 significance: Ψ = P-value < 0.05, ΨΨ = P-value < 0.01, ΨΨΨ = P-value < 0.001, AOR = adjusted odds ratio)
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