Table 1 Items and constructs of the scale construct items reference.

Self-Efficacy (SE)

Even without assistance, I am confident in using LLMs to complete academic paper writing

^116,117

I have sufficient skills to use LLMs for academic paper writing

I am confident in finding solutions when encountering issues while using LLMs for writing

I am confident that I can find writing information in the LLMs model

Experience (EX)

Prior to this, I frequently used LLMs

^41,118

Prior to this, I was able to use LLMs with ease

Prior to this, I felt comfortable using LLMs

Prior to this, I was able to construct specific input prompts

Subjective norms (SN)

The individuals who impact my actions encouraged me to adopt LLMs for paper writing

^48,72

The individuals who affect my behavior think using LLMs for academic writing benefits my learning

The individuals who matter to me encouraged me to use LLMs for paper writing

The people who are important to me believe that using LLMs for academic writing is helpful for my learning

Goal achievement (GA)

Using LLMs is essential for reaching my paper writing goals

^51,55,119

Using LLMs is efficient because it’s available whenever and wherever I need it

Using LLMs is important for saving time in academic paper writing

Using LLMs is convenient because I can access them at any time and from any location

Perceived time risk (PTR)

Using LLMs may result in poor academic writing performance, leading to wasted time

^82,83,120

Using LLMs might waste a significant amount of time correcting writing errors, causing inconvenience

Using (and configuring) LLMs requires an investment of my time, which could pose certain risks

Learning how to use (and configuring) LLMs may consume a considerable amount of time

Perceived privacy risk (PPR)

In general, providing writing information to LLMs may pose privacy risks

^82,91

Providing writing information to LLMs may likely lead to potential risks or losses

Providing writing information to LLMs may bring about many unexpected issues

Providing writing information to LLMs involves too much uncertainty

Perceived usefulness (PU)

Using LLMs has improved the efficiency of my paper writing

^17,48,121

Using LLMs can help me improve the quality of my paper writing

Using LLMs has made paper writing much easier

Using LLMs in paper writing is very helpful

Perceived ease of use (PEOU)

Learning to use/operate LLMs is very easy

^17,48,121

Using LLMs is neither complex nor difficult to understand

The skills required to use LLMs are basic

Using LLMs to obtain information related to paper writing is very simple

Attitude toward using (ATU)

Using LLMs is appealing to me

^67,113

I am inclined to use the LLMs

Using LLMs feels great to me

Overall, I view using LLMs favorably

Behaviour intention to use (BI)

I will use LLMs more in my future paper writing

^48,67,122

I plan to use LLMs to assist with my paper writing

I would recommend LLMs to my friends/classmates

I will use LLMs frequently in the future