Table 1 Simulation parameters.

Solid DENSITY (kg/m³)

930

Liquid density (kg/m³)

900

Poisson’s ratio

0.481

Shear Modulus (Pa)

2.495 × 10⁶

Particle–particle coefficient of restitution

0.278

Particle–particle static friction coefficient

0.57

Particle–particle dynamic friction coefficient

0.01

Particle-PVC coefficient of restitution

0.36

Particle-PVC static friction coefficient

0.49

Particle-PVC dynamic friction coefficient

0.03