Fig. 3

Time-kill curves for Staphylococcus aureus clinical isolate MB-1137 treated with (a) azithromycin, (b) citral, and (c) citral + azithromycin combination at MIC, 2×MIC, and 4×MIC concentrations over 24 h. Data represent mean ± SD (n = 3). Statistically significant differences between treatments at each time point were determined using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test (0 h: p = 1.33 × 10⁻⁶; 24 h: p = 1.93 × 10⁻¹⁴). The combination treatment showed significantly greater reduction in bacterial viability compared to individual treatments (p < 0.05). “Note: The control CFU values observed at 24 h may reflect minor overestimation due to bacterial aggregation or clumping, which can artificially elevate viable counts in late log or early stationary phase cultures.”.