Table 1 Advantages and limitations of single-cell mechanical characterization techniques.

AFM

Sub-nanometre spatial resolution; broad force range (pN-\(\mu\)N); local mechanical mapping of living cells.

Tip-sample contact may perturb the specimen; requires precise cantilever calibration^54,55.

OT

Non-contact manipulation; piconewton force sensitivity; high temporal resolution (kHz).

Limited to dielectric beads or cells in suspension; maximum force \(\lesssim 200\) pN; potential photothermal heating^55,56.

MT

Simultaneous force and torque application; long-term stable loading; negligible heat generation.

Requires bead functionalisation; spatial resolution limited by optical tracking; mainly suited to tethered samples⁵⁵.

PTM

Passive and minimally invasive; probes intracellular rheology over a wide frequency range; parallel measurements possible.

Delivers relative rather than absolute moduli; tracer size and local heterogeneity complicate interpretation⁵⁷.

MPA

Simple analytical framework; yields whole-cell mechanical parameters; applicable to adherent or suspension cells.

Coarse spatial resolution; quasi-static measurement; possible membrane damage at high suction⁵⁸.