Table 2 Multimodal biomarker profiling across PD, prodromal, and control groups with statistical significance analysis.

Clinical Data

Gender (F/M)

25/25

21/29

23/27

>0.05^b

Age

67.3 ± 13.09

72.39 ± 14.13

74.2 ± 13.85

>0.05^a

History of PD (Yes/No)

5/45

3/47

0/50

>0.05^b

Weight

77.8 ± 21.3

75.46 ± 28.22

72.15 ± 18.77

>0.05^a

Height

168.1 ± 10.1

169.56 ± 10.02

170.6 ± 11.5

>0.05^a

Heart rate (stand)

71.98 ± 15.011

64.7 ± 12.81

61.56 ± 5.88

>0.05^a

Heart rate (sit)

80.14 ± 16.91

74 ± 15.504

68.48 ± 5.4

>0.05^a

UPDRS-1

28.94 ± 15.09

16.14 ± 3.07

-

<0.05^a

UPDRS-2

28.7 ± 15.92

18 ± 4.29

-

<0.05^a

UPDRS-3

65.64 ± 36.37

31.4 ± 7.82

-

<0.05^a

UPDRS-4

14.6 ± 6.16

8.28 ± 2.29

-

<0.05^a

Total UPDRS score

118.28 ± 40.62

65.54 ± 11.10

-

<0.05^a

MOCA score

15.04 ± 2.18

21.28 ± 2.20

28.28 ± 1.249

<0.05^a

DaTscan (SBR Features)

Right caudate

1.1 ± 0.39

1.61 ± 0.50

2.10 ± 0.83

<0.05^a

Left caudate

1.26 ± 0.48

1.56 ± 0.47

2.00 ± 0.97

<0.05^a

Right putamen

0.50 ± 0.21

0.74 ± 0.31

0.92 ± 0.79

>0.05^a

Left putamen

0.55 ± 0.24

0.71 ± 0.30

0.91 ± 0.74

>0.05^a

Protein Biomarkers

\(\alpha\)-synuclein (pg/ml)

1927.56 ± 51.47

1989.79 ± 48.8

1874.76 ± 42.7

<0.05^a

A\(\beta _{1-42}\) (pg/ml)

884.5 ± 313.84

1070.7 ± 421.37

964.9 ± 422.6

<0.05^a

t-Tau (pg/ml)

17.6 ± 66.25

19.80 ± 66.08

18.7 ± 71.96

<0.05^a

p-Tau₁₈₁ (pg/ml)

14.36 ± 6.31

15.89 ± 5.02

17.27 ± 8.18

<0.05^a