Fig. 16

Schematic illustration of the primary antibacterial mechanisms of Ag₂O: (I) Ag₂O NPs adhere to the microbial cell surface, causing membrane disruption and altering transport functions. (II) Ag₂O NPs penetrate the microbial cells, interacting with intracellular components and disturbing vital cellular activities. (III) Ag₂O NPs induce the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to oxidative stress and cellular damage. (IV) Ag₂O NPs interfere with microbial signaling pathways, triggering programmed cell death. (V) Ag₂O NPs disrupt ion transport across the microbial membrane, further impairing essential cellular functions.