Fig. 12
Diagrammatic depiction of the four primary mechanisms by which the synthesized CuO-NPs exhibit antibacterial activity: (I) CuO-NPs bind to and encase the surface of the microbial cell, disrupting membrane function and changing transport activity. (II) Once within the microbial cells, the CuO-NPs interact with several biomolecules and organelles, including ribosomes, chromosomes, DNA, and mesosomes, which in turn affects the corresponding cellular machinery. (III) The produced CuO-NPs cause extracellular ROS to form and grow, which in turn damages cells. (IV) CuO-NPs trigger cell death by influencing the cellular signaling pathway. (V) Lastly, CuO-NPs prevent ions from entering and leaving the cells of microbes.
