Table 2 Cognitive performance, fatigue and affective state across groups.

From: Evidence for a severe cognitive subgroup in a comprehensive neuropsychological Post-COVID-19 syndrome classification

Cognitive domains

Tests

PCS

(N = 54)

PV

(N = 12)

HC

(N = 42)

CV

(N = 25)

Statisticsa

Mean/

Median

(SD)

N

(%)

impaired

Mean/Median

(SD)

N

(%)

impaired

Mean/

Median (SD)

N

(%)

impaired

Mean/

Median (SD)

N

(%)

impaired

ANOVA/Kruskal-Wallis-Test

Verbal short-term memory

         

Digit span forward

6.50 (1.94)

22 (41)

7.33 (1.61)

2 (17)

7.93 (1.94)

5 (12)

7.68 (2.02)

5 (20)

F(3, 129) = 4.87, p =.003

Nonverbal short-term memory

         

Block-Tapping-Test forward

8 (2.13)

20 (37)

8 (1.75)

2 (17)

9 (1.91)

4 (10)

9 (1.38)

1 (4)

H(3) = 16.20, p =.001

Verbal working memory

         

Digit span backwards

5.54 (1.51)

21 (39)

6.25 (2.34)

4 (33)

6.88 (2.05)

8 (19)

6.28 (1.82)

6 (24)

F(3, 129) = 4.29, p =.006

Nonverbal working memory

         

Block-Tapping-Test backwards

7 (2.24)

22 (41)

7 (1.82)

5 (42)

9 (1.57)

3 (7)

8 (1.83)

6 (24)

H(3) = 12.71, p =.005

Verbal episodic memory

         

VLMT total

52.50 (11.91)

12 (22)

55.00 (10.72)

2 (17)

58.67 (8.75)

1 (2)

57.52 (7.28)

2 (8)

F(3, 129) = 3.29, p =.023

VLMT delayed recall

11.50

(3.15)

16 (30)

12

(3.42)

5 (42)

14 (2.41)

3 (7)

13 (1.88)

0 (0)

H(3) = 16.59, p <.001

VLMT recognition

14 (1.53)

13 (24)

14 (1.44)

2 (17)

15 (0.86)

3 (7)

15 (0.77)

1 (4)

H(3) = 10.09, p =.018

Visuoconstruction

         

Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (copy)

36

(1.00)

2 (4)

36 (1.30)

1 (8)

36 (1.30)

3 (7)

36 (0.56)

0 (0)

H(3) = 1.64, p =.650

Nonverbal episodic memory

         

Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (delayed recall)

21.76 (6.85)

9 (17)

25.04 (6.72)

3 (25)

24.74 (6.84)

5 (12)

25.08 (6.05)

2 (8)

F(3, 129) = 2.36, p =.075

Attentional functions

         

TAP Alertness (tonic)

283 (295.79)

28 (52)

291.50 (114.02)

9 (75)

231 (30.44)

4 (10)

227 (29.75)

2 (8)

H(3) = 32.10, p <.001

TAP Alertness (phasic)

281 (263.03)

32 (59)

280 (59.76)

9 (75)

235.50 (34.08)

9 (21)

231 (29.76)

3 (12)

H(3) = 24.26, p <.001

TAP Divided Attention (auditory)

662 (287.68)

32 (59)

686 (116.31)

9 (75)

567.50 (111.60)

15 (36)

622 (83.48)

13 (52)

H(3) = 14.39, p =.002

TAP Divided Attention (visual)

834 (197.62)

14 (26)

788 (114.50)

3 (25)

726.50 (83.00)

2 (5)

727 (84.53)

1 (4)

H(3) = 32.90, p <.001

TAP Incompatibility

546.50

(284.05)

26 (48)

517 (147.30)

6 (50)

444.50 (77.03)

6 (14)

435 (71.38)

3 (12)

H(3) = 20.08, p <.001

SDMT

50.28

(12.05)

22 (41)

54.00 (11.91)

6 (50)

60.17 (8.85)

3 (7)

61.12 (8.95)

2 (8)

F(3, 129) = 9.56, p <.001

Executive functions

         

Phonemic verbal fluency (RWT S)

19.39 (5.75)

28 (52)

22.75 (10.84)

8 (67)

25.29 (7.60)

10 (24)

23.72 (6.64)

11 (44)

F(3, 129) = 5.87, p <.001

Semantic verbal fluency (RWT food)

34.76 (8.74)

19 (35)

38.00 (11.93)

5 (42)

41.36 (10.25)

9 (21)

40.04 (12.43)

6 (24)

F(3, 129) = 3.60, p =.015

Semantic verbal fluency (RWT animals)

32.70 (9.94)

28 (52)

34.33 (8.13)

8 (67)

40.90 (11.07)

10 (24)

37.76 (10.08)

11 (44)

F(3, 129) = 4.41, p =.002

Phonemic category change (RWT G-R)

17.31 (5.12)

29 (54)

19.83 (3.93)

6 (50)

22.76 (7.08)

11 (26)

20.76 (5.40)

8 (32)

F(3, 129) = 7.21, p <.001

Semantic category change (RWT sports-fruits)

21.56 (6.07)

12 (22)

20.42 (6.26)

7 (58)

23.38 (5.61)

4 (10)

21.56 (3.31)

4 (16)

F(3, 129) = 1.37, p =.255

Cognitive Fatigue (FSMC)

43

(5.22)

 

40

(10.78)

 

14 (6.00)

 

17 (7.00)

 

H(3) = 95.34, p <.001

Mild

 

0 (0)

 

0 (0)

 

7 (17)

 

6 (24)

 

Moderate

 

4 (7)

 

2 (17)

 

2 (5)

 

3 (12)

 

Severe

 

50 (93)

 

8 (67)

 

0 (0)

 

0 (0)

 

Motor Fatigue (FSMC)

42.22 (5.06)

 

36.00 (9.19)

 

15.62 (5.98)

 

15.92 (5.42)

 

F(3, 129) = 210.06, p <.001

Mild

 

0 (0)

 

0 (0)

 

5 (12)

 

7 (28)

 

Moderate

 

2 (4)

 

2 (17)

 

3 (7)

 

0 (0)

 

Severe

 

52 (96)

 

9 (75)

 

0 (0)

 

0 (0)

 

Depressive symptoms

(PHQ-9)

12.70 (4.69)

 

9.42

(3.15)

 

3.98 (3.63)

 

4.80 (2.90)

 

F(3, 129) = 45.86, p <.001

Mild

 

23 (43)

 

6 (50)

 

1 (2)

 

0 (0)

 

Moderate

 

16 (30)

 

0 (0)

 

2 (5)

 

0 (0)

 

Severe

 

4 (7)

 

0 (0)

 

0 (0)

 

0 (0)

 

Anxiety symptoms (GAD-2)

2 (1.60)

 

2 (1.67)

 

1 (1.04)

 

1 (0.79)

 

H(3) = 21.83, p <.001

Increased anxiety symptoms

 

20 (37)

 

1 (8)

 

2 (5)

 

1 (4)

 

none

 

34(63)

 

11(92)

 

40(95)

 

24(96)

 

Personality traits

         

Neuroticism

(NEO-FFI-30)

1.66 (0.92)

 

1.38 (0.74)

 

1.07 (0.83)

 

1.10 (0.65)

 

F(3, 129) = 4.81, p =.003

Extraversion

(NEO-FFI-30)

1.88 (0.79)

 

2.03 (0.48)

 

2.42 (0.64)

 

2.37 (0.70)

 

F(3, 129) = 5.62, p =.001

Openness

(NEO-FFI-30)

2.30 (0.86)

 

2.64 (0.70)

 

2.37 (0.75)

 

2.35 (1.12)

 

F(3, 129) = 0.50, p =.684

Agreeableness

(NEO-FFI-30)

3.21 (0.56)

 

3.26 (0.59)

 

3.17 (0.65)

 

3.03 (0.63)

 

F(3, 129) = 0.58, p =.627

Conscientiousness (NEO-FFI-30)

3.10 (0.62)

 

3.35 (0.76)

 

3.31 (0.65)

 

3.09 (0.67)

 

F(3, 129) = 1.24, p =.298

  1. Abbreviations: PCS = Post-COVID-19 syndrome. PV = Post-viral. HC = Healthy Controls. CV = Convalescents. VLMT = Verbal Learning Memory Test. TAP = Testbatterie zur Aufmerksamkeitsprüfung. SDMT = Symbol Digit Modalities Test. RWT = Regensburger Wortflüssigkeitstest (German Version of Verbal Fluency). FSMC = Fatigue Scale for Motor and Cognitive Functions. PHQ-9 = Patient Health Questionnaire-9. GAD-2 = Generalized Anxiety Disorder-2. NEO-FFI-30 = NEO-Five-Factor Inventory (30-Item-Short-Version). aANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis-Test for group comparison where appropriate; threshold for significant difference with p <.05. For variables that did not meet the assumption of homogeneity of variances, the median is reported instead of the mean. Group means/medians that significantly differed from each other are highlighted in bold.
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