Fig. 1

EPE recordings with spike detection model. a Synchronization of 100 close-up spikes in raw recordings (sky blue lines), average spike pattern (dark blue line) and EPE model spike detection (red dashed line). b 72-h EPE recordings (voltage in mV) show infestation and removal times from three distinct plants (recordings from ‘EPE model benchmarking’ experiment). Red dashed lines denote detected spikes; plant illustrations indicate electrode insertion in stem or pod.