Fig. 3

Compression test of the unit cell. (A) A Finite Element Method (FEM) model of the unit cell actuator under compression loading, shown alongside an analogous spring model representing the applied force (F) and displacement (x). (B) Experimental setup for compression testing, including the actuator prototype, compression plates, and the universal testing machine (UTM). (C) Comparison of force-displacement curves obtained from FEM simulations and experimental measurements at three inflation pressures (0.1 MPa, 0.15 MPa, and 0.2 MPa), demonstrating strong agreement between model predictions and experimental data.