Table 8 Comparative analysis of the proposed XOR-based visual cryptography scheme against traditional XOR, polynomial-based, and CRT-based methods in terms of runtime, memory usage, entropy, and PSNR.

Runtime (ms)

12.3 ± 1.5

14.1 ± 1.8

42.7 ± 4.5

55.9 ± 6.3

Memory Usage (MB)

18.4

21.2

32.5

38.9

Entropy (bits/pixel)

7.98

7.95

7.90

7.87

NPCR (%)

99.62

99.59

99.41

99.38

UACI (%)

33.18

33.11

32.88

32.65

PSNR (Noise, dB)

29.7

27.2

25.6

24.9