Table 3 An evaluative examination of the proposed protocol in relation to different group AKA protocols within the Internet of Vehicles (IoVT) framework.

Target achieved	Proposed protocol	5G-AKA³³	Liu’s AKA³⁴	Braeken AKA³⁵	Shang’s AKA¹⁷	NAPV¹⁰	Ouaissa’s AKA¹⁸	Miao’s AKA¹⁶
\(\hbox {T}_{1}\): Mutual authentication	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
\(\hbox {T}_{2}\): Third party involvement	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes
\(\hbox {T}_{3}\): Resistance to impersonation	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes
\(\hbox {T}_{4}\): Resistance to MitM attack	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No
\(\hbox {T}_{5}\): Subscriber privacy	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes
\(\hbox {T}_{6}\): Support group authentication	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
\(\hbox {T}_{7}\): Unlinkability	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes
\(\hbox {T}_{8}\): Presence of user traceability	No	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No
\(\hbox {T}_{9}\): Forward/Backward key secrecy	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No
\(\hbox {T}_{10}\): Resistance to billing attack	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes
\(\hbox {T}_{11}\): Confidentiality & integrity	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes
\(\hbox {T}_{12}\): Presence of weak binding	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes
\(\hbox {T}_{13}\): Follow the standard	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes	No
\(\hbox {T}_{14}\): Key confirmation	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No
\(\hbox {T}_{15}\): Prevention of replay attacks	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes
\(\hbox {T}_{16}\): Cryptosystem	Sym	Hybrid	Hybrid	Hybrid	Hybrid	Sym	Sym & ECDH	Hybrid

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