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In vitro release kinetics and in vivo plasma exposure of green tea polyphenols and caffeine from iron oxide Chitosan nanoparticles
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  • Published: 20 January 2026

In vitro release kinetics and in vivo plasma exposure of green tea polyphenols and caffeine from iron oxide Chitosan nanoparticles

  • Safaa Al Awawdeh1,
  • Nurul Husna Shafie1,2,
  • Amirah Haziyah Ishak1,
  • Norhaizan Mohd Esa1,2,
  • Su Peng Loh1 &
  • …
  • Armania Nurdin2,3 

Scientific Reports , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

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We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

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  • Drug discovery
  • Nanoscience and technology

Abstract

Green tea polyphenols (GTPP) are known for their antioxidant and anticancer activities but suffer from low bioavailability due to instability in the gastrointestinal environment. This study aimed to enhance the oral delivery of GTPP by encapsulating epicatechin, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), catechin, gallic acid, theaflavin, and caffeine into iron oxide chitosan nanoparticles (IOCHNP). Using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), the release of GTPP was evaluated in vitro and in vivo in both simulated intestinal media and rat’s plasma. GTPP-IOCHNP efficiently encapsulates GTPP, achieving an encapsulation efficiency of 90.9% for catechin and 83.3% for theaflavin. Additionally, less than 8% of GTPP is released in simulated gastric fluid (SGF), while its more readily released in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) is enhanced, reaching 70% for caffeine. The release of gallic acid and epicatechin followed Higuchi kinetics, catechin followed Korsmeyer-Peppas, and caffeine followed Weibull model, indicating diverse mechanisms of release. The in vivo results demonstrated that GTPP loaded GTPP-IOCHNP significantly enhanced the absorption of GTPP compared to GTPP administered alone (p < 0.05). The bioavailability of EGCG, epicatechin, catechin, gallic acid and theaflavin was improved by approximately 8.5-, 6.5-, 4.8-, 5- and 3.5- fold respectively when delivered using GTPP-IOCHNP as a carrier. These findings highlight the potential of IOCHNP as an efficient oral delivery platform for tea polyphenols.

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Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Funding

The authors express their gratitude to the Ministry of Education, Malaysia, for providing project funding through the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2018/SKK10/UPM/02/5).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia

    Safaa Al Awawdeh, Nurul Husna Shafie, Amirah Haziyah Ishak, Norhaizan Mohd Esa & Su Peng Loh

  2. Laboratory of UPM-MAKNA Cancer Research, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia

    Nurul Husna Shafie, Norhaizan Mohd Esa & Armania Nurdin

  3. Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia

    Armania Nurdin

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Contributions

SAA involved in formal analysis, investigation, data curation, data validation, writing – original draft and writing – review & editing; NHS developed the conceptualization, methodology, provide software, resources, writing – review & editing, supervision, project administration and funding acquisition; AHI involved in investigation and writing – review & editing, NME involved in conceptualization, writing – review & editing, supervision and funding acquisition, LSP and AN involved in writing – review & editing and supervision.

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Al Awawdeh, S., Shafie, N.H., Ishak, A.H. et al. In vitro release kinetics and in vivo plasma exposure of green tea polyphenols and caffeine from iron oxide Chitosan nanoparticles. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34828-0

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  • Received: 19 May 2025

  • Accepted: 31 December 2025

  • Published: 20 January 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34828-0

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Keywords

  • In vitro
  • In vivo
  • Iron oxide
  • Chitosan
  • Nanoparticle
  • Polyphenols
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