Table 1 Characteristics of the included studies.

From: Neurofeedback training for executive function in ADHD children: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Study

Region

Age (year)

Sample

Design

Intervention

Intervention time

ASD diagnostic criteria

Measure index

Measure task

Alegria24 et al. (2017)

UK

12–17

EG: n = 18

ICG: n = 13

RCT

Real-time fMRI NFT (rIFG) VS. No intervention

2 weeks,

7 sessions/week,

8.5 min/session,

total 119 min

DSM-5,

K-SADS-PL

IC

GNG

Bakhsha-yesh25 et al. (2011)

Italy

6–14

EG: n = 14

ACG: n = 14

RCT

EEG NFT (TBR) VS. EMG BF

10–15 weeks,

2/3 sessions/week,

30 min/session,

total 900 min

ICD-10

IC

CPT

Beauregard26 et al. (2006)

Canada

8–12

EG: n = 15

ICG: n = 5

RCT

EEG NFT (TBR) VS. No intervention

13.5 weeks,

3 sessions/week,

60 min/session,

total 2400 min

DSM-5

IC

GNG

Bink27 et al. (2014)

Netherlands

16

EG: n = 45

ACG: n = 26

RCT

EEG NFT (TBR) + TAU; VS. TAU

25 weeks,

2–3 sessions/week,

40 min/session,

total 1200 min

DSM-5

WM;

CF

DSB;

TL

Dobrakowski28 et al. (2020)

Poland

6–12

EG: n = 24

ICG: n = 24

RCT

EEG NFT (PAF) VS. No intervention

10 weeks,

1 session/week,

45 min/session,

total 450 min

DSM-5, ICD-10

WM

N-back

Geladé29 et al. (2017)

Netherlands

7–13

EG: n = 36

ACG: n = 37

RCT

EEG NFT (TBR) VS. PA

10–12 weeks,

3 sessions/week,

45 min/session,

total 1350 min

DSM-5

IC,

WM

SST,

VSWM

Geladé30 et al. (2018)

Netherlands

7–13

EG: n = 33

ACG: n = 31

RCT

EEG NFT (TBR) VS. PA

10–12 weeks,

3 sessions/week,

45 min/session,

total 1350 min

DSM-5

IC,

WM

SST,

VSWM

Ging-Jehli31 et al. (2023)

USA

7–10

EG: n = 55

ICG: n = 78

RCT

EEG NFT (TBR) VS. No intervention

not explicitly stated

DSM-5; AODS-2

IC

IVA2-CPT, GNG

Heinrich32 et al. (2014)

Germany

7–14

EG: n = 13

ICG: n = 9

RCT

EEG NFT (SCP) VS. No

intervention

7 weeks,

7 sessions/week,

50 min/session,

total 1250 min

DSM-5;

Diagnostic Checklist for ADHD

IC

CPT

Maurizio33 et al. (2014)

Switzerland

8.5–13

EG: n = 12

ACG: n = 2

RCT

EEG NFT (SCP + TBR) VS. No EMG BF

12 weeks,

2–3 sessions/week,

30 min/session,

total 1080 min

DSM-5

Global EF

BRIEF

Moradi34 et al. (2022)

Iran

10.1

EG: n = 16

ICG: n = 16

RCT

EEG NFT (TBR) VS. No

Intervention

3 months,

3 sessions/week,

15 min/session,

total 1620 min

DSM-5

IC,

WM

CPT, WWMT

Moreno-García35 et al. (2019)

Spain

7–14

EG: n = 19

ACG1:n = 19

ACG2:n = 19

RCT

EEG NFT (TBR) VS

BT or PH

20 weeks,

4 sessions/week,

24 min/session,

total 40 session

total 960 min

DSM-5; ADHD RS-IV

IC

CPT

Shereena36 et al. (2019)

India

6–12

EG: n = 15

ICG: n = 15

RCT

EEG NFT (TBR) VS. No

intervention

3.5–5 months,

3–4 sessions/week,

20–40 min/session,

total 1200 min

ICD-10

IC,

WM,

CF

GNG,

N-back,

CTT

Steiner37 et al. (2014)

Boston

7–11

EG: n = 34

ACG: n = 34

ICG: n = 36

RCT

EEG NFT (TBR) VS. CT/No intervention

5 months,

3 sessions/week,

45 min/session,

total 1800 min

DSM-5

Global EF

BRIEF

Steiner38 et al. (2011)

Boston

12.4

EG: n = 9

ICG: n = 13

RCT

EEG NFT (TBR) VS. No intervention

4 months,

2 sessions/week,

45 min/session,

total 1440 min

DSM-5

Global EF

BRIEF

Vollebregt39 et al. (2014)

Netherlands

8–15

EG: n = 60

ICG: n = 60

RCT

EEG NFT (individualized: SMR, beta, theta) VS. No intervention

15 weeks,

2 sessions/week,

20 min/session,

total 720 min

DSM-5

WM

Digit span WISC-III

Wangler40 et al. (2011)

Germany

8–12

EG: n = 59

ACG: n = 35

RCT

EEG NFT (SCP + TBR) VS. Attention Training

9 weeks,

2–3 sessions/week,

50 min/session,

total 1800 min

DSM-5

IC

ANT

  1. EG: Experimental Group; ICG: inactive controls group; RCT: Randomized Controlled Trial; rIFG: right inferior prefrontal cortex; ST: standard treatment; DSM-5: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition; K-SADS-PL: Kiddie Schedule of Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version; IC: Inhibitory Control; GNG: Go/No-go; ACG: active control group; EMG BF: Electromyogram Biofeedback; ICD-10: International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision; CPT: Continuous Performance Task; TAU: Treatment As Usual; WM: Working Memory; CF: Cognitive Flexibility; DSB: Digit Span Backward; TL: Tower of London; PAF: peak alpha frequency; PA: Physical Activity; SST: Stop-signal Task; VSWM: Visual Spatial Working Memory Task; AODS-2: Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition; IVA2-CPT: Integrated Visual and Auditory Continuous Performance Test; EF: Executive Function; BRIEF: Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function; WWMT: Wechsler Working Memory Test; BT: Behavior Therapy; PH: Pharmacology; ADHD RS-IV: ADHD Rating Scale–IV; CTT: Color Trails Test; CT: cognitive training; WISC-III: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Three Edition; SMR: sensory motor rhythm; ANT: Attention Network Test.
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