Table 3 Association between ADHD and extreme pain, as estimated using binary logistic regression.

From: Correlation between attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and chronic pain: a survey of adults in Japan

Characteristics

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

Model 4

Model 5

Model 6

Model 7

ADHD symptomsa

3.68***

 

3.68***

3.49***

3.44***

2.66***

2.73***

 

[2.43, 5.58]

 

[2.40, 5.63]

[2.27, 5.37]

[2.24, 5.30]

[1.70, 4.17]

[1.73, 4.31]

ASD symptomsa

 

1.38

1.00

   

0.81

  

[0.78, 2.43]

[0.56, 1.81]

   

[0.44, 1.51]

Age

   

0.98

0.98

0.98

0.98

    

[0.96, 1.00]

[0.96, 1.00]

[0.96, 1.00]

[0.96, 1.00]

Sex

       

 Male

   

ref.

ref.

ref.

ref.

 Female

   

1.26

1.27

1.25

1.25

    

[0.81, 1.96]

[0.82, 1.98]

[0.80, 1.95]

[0.80, 1.95]

BMI

   

1.74**

 

1.66*

1.64*

    

[1.14, 2.65]

 

[1.09, 2.54]

[1.06, 2.54]

Marital status

       

 Unmarried

   

ref.

ref.

ref.

ref.

 Married

   

1.65*

1.65*

1.80*

1.77*

    

[1.05, 2.61]

[1.05, 2.61]

[1.13, 2.87]

[1.11, 2.82]

 Divorced or widowed

   

1.57

1.55

1.64

1.62

    

[0.69, 3.58]

[0.68, 3.53]

[0.72, 3.77]

[0.70, 3.71]

Educational backgroundb

       

 College

   

ref.

ref.

ref.

ref.

 No college

   

1.51*

1.51*

1.49*

1.49*

    

[1.03, 2.21]

[1.03, 2.21]

[1.02, 2.19]

[1.02, 2.19]

Employment typec

       

 Regular

   

ref.

ref.

ref.

ref.

 Non-regular

   

1.32

1.32

1.31

1.33

    

[0.75, 2.31]

[0.76, 2.32]

[0.75, 2.31]

[0.76, 2.34]

 Non-worker

   

1.10

1.11

1.09

1.11

    

[0.66, 1.83]

[0.67, 1.85]

[0.66, 1.83]

[0.67, 1.86]

Problems with physical healthd

    

1.16

 

1.06

     

[0.78, 1.73]

 

[0.71, 1.59]

Problems with mental healthe

     

2.85***

2.90***

      

[1.88, 4.32]

[1.90, 4.42]

  1. Data are presented as odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001.
  2. Each model was adjusted for all covariates in each column. Seven models were constructed: Model 1: univariate analysis of ADHD symptoms (unadjusted); Model 2: univariate analysis of ASD symptoms (unadjusted); Model 3: adjusted for ASD symptoms; Model 4: adjusted for age, sex, BMI, marital status, educational background, and employment status; Model 5: adjusted for the covariates in Model 4 and problems with physical health; Model 6: adjusted for the covariates in Model 4 and problems with mental health; Model 7: adjusted for the covariates in Model 4 and ASD symptoms, problems with physical health, and problems with mental health (fully adjusted model).
  3. Responses with an average NRS score of 9–10 for the pain area that was most troubling within 4 weeks were considered “extreme pain,” and other responses were considered “no extreme pain” and were the dependent variables in the binary logistic regression analysis.
  4. aThe presence of ADHD and ASD symptoms corresponded to positive and negative ASRS and AQ screening, respectively.
  5. bResponses of graduation from junior high school, high school, or vocational high school were considered “non-college,” while those of graduation from vocational school, university, or postgraduate school were considered “college.”
  6. cThose who answered that they were regular employees were classified as “regular”; those who answered that they were part-timers, temporary workers, running a business, helping out in the family business, or working at home as an in-house worker or a freelancer were classified as “non-regular”; and those who answered that they were students, housewives/househusbands, unemployed (including retired and job-seeking), and others (none of the above) were considered “non-workers.”
  7. dA person was considered to have a physical health problem if they had been diagnosed by a doctor in the past with 1–12 diseases (hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, obesity, rheumatoid arthritis, liver dysfunction, renal dysfunction, atopic dermatitis, bronchial asthma, postherpetic neuralgia, malignancy, and others).
  8. eParticipants who scored 75 (clinical psychiatric level) or higher on any one of the five subscales of the POMS (tension-anxiety (T–A), depression–dejection (D), anger–hostility (A–H), fatigue (F), and confusion (C)) were considered to have mental health problems.
  9. ADHD, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder; AQ, autism spectrum quotient; ASD, autism spectrum disorder; ASRS, Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale; BMI, body mass index; POMS, Profile of Mood States; ref., reference category; NRS, numerical rating scale.
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