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Effects of 12-week aquatic HIIT on blood pressure lipid profile and BaPWV in postmenopausal women with different ACE genotypes
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  • Published: 28 January 2026

Effects of 12-week aquatic HIIT on blood pressure lipid profile and BaPWV in postmenopausal women with different ACE genotypes

  • Wen-sheng Zhou1,
  • Yu-hong Li1,
  • Na Xu1,
  • Bao-fang Liu1,
  • Zi-hao Li1,
  • Shuai-jie Gu1,
  • Rong-yao Zhang1,
  • Xuan-Xu1,
  • Cheng Yan1,
  • Qi-yu Wang1,
  • Lei Sun1,
  • Meng Gu1,
  • Tian-qi Zhu1 &
  • …
  • Lei Tian1 

Scientific Reports , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

Subjects

  • Diseases
  • Genetics
  • Physiology

Abstract

The angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphism influences renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activity and may modulate cardiovascular adaptations to exercise. Yet, evidence regarding genotype-dependent responses to aquatic high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in postmenopausal women is limited. We aimed to compare the effects of 12-week aquatic HIIT on blood pressure, lipid profile, and arterial stiffness between postmenopausal women with the ACE II genotype and those carrying at least one D allele (ID/DD genotype). Sixty postmenopausal women aged 45–75 years were recruited, with ten participants voluntarily withdrawing from the study and three lost to follow-up. A total of 47 participants completed the intervention (21.7% attrition). Participants were stratified into ACE II (n = 25, 59.0 ± 5.52 years) and ID/DD (n = 22, 57.4 ± 7.52 years) genotype groups. Participants performed a 12-week aquatic HIIT program, with three 40-minute sessions per week. Each session consisted of a 6-minute warm-up, 30 min of main training (involving strength and jumping exercises), and a 4-minute cool-down. key cardiovascular outcomes were measured at pre- and post-intervention. Following a 12-week aquatic HIIT program, no significant differences were observed in post-intervention systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), or mean arterial pressure (MAP) between the II and ID/DD groups (all p > 0.05). While no significant between-group differences were found in brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity (baPWV) on either side (p = 0.058, 0.086), a greater magnitude of change in baPWV values was observed in the ID/DD group. Within-group analyses revealed that the II group exhibited significant reductions in SBP, DBP, MAP, and baPWV(right) (p = 0.023, 0.041, 0.020, 0.019), whereas the ID/DD group showed significant increases in baPWV (right/left, p = 0.013, 0.002). Post-intervention TG levels were significantly lower in the ID/DD group compared to the II group (p = 0.000), with a non-significant trend toward higher HDL-C levels (p = 0.053). Both groups demonstrated significant improvements in lipid profiles, characterized by increased HDL-C and decreased LDL-C (p < 0.05). The aquatic HIIT program significantly improved blood lipids in postmenopausal women, yet no significant ACE genotype-specific effects were observed on blood pressure or arterial stiffness. While the II group exhibited favorable reductions in blood pressure, the ID/DD group showed increased arterial stiffness, suggesting potential vascular risks and underscoring the need for monitoring during exercise.

Trial registration: ChiCTR2400087544 (July 30, 2024).

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Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

SBP:

Systolic blood pressure

DBP:

Diastolic blood pressure

MAP:

Mean arterial pressure

LDL-C:

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol

HDL-C:

High-density lipoprotein cholesterol

TC:

Total cholesterol

TG:

Triglycerides

baPWV:

Brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity

HIIT:

High-intensity interval training

HRR:

Heart rate reserve

RPE:

Rating of perceived exertion

PAR-Q:

Physical activity readiness questionnaire

Mean ± SD:

Mean ± standard deviation

ACE:

Angiotensin-converting enzyme

II:

Insertion/insertion genotype

ID/DD:

Insertion/deletion and deletion/deletion genotypes

RAAS:

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

Ang II:

Angiotensin II

NO:

Nitric oxide

Ct:

Cycle threshold

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Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge all authors for their contributions to this study.

Funding

This study was supported by the Project Funding of Humanities and Social Sciences Research in China, Ministry of Education (Grant Number: 21YJC890051 to W-SZ).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Physical Education, Jiangsu Second Normal University, Nanjing, China

    Wen-sheng Zhou, Yu-hong Li, Na Xu, Bao-fang Liu, Zi-hao Li, Shuai-jie Gu, Rong-yao Zhang,  Xuan-Xu, Cheng Yan, Qi-yu Wang, Lei Sun, Meng Gu, Tian-qi Zhu & Lei Tian

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Contributions

LT and W-SZ: Conceptualization, methodology, supervision, writing the original draft. Y-HL and NX: Data curation, formal analysis, and review. B-FL, Z-HL, S-JG, R-YZ, XX, CY, Q-YW, and LS: Investigation, data acquisition, project administration. MG and T-QZ: Data curation. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lei Tian.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was approved by the Ethics Review Committee for Biomedical Studies at Nanjing Normal University (Approval No. NNU202407009). All procedures were conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and relevant ethical guidelines. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their inclusion in the study.

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Zhou, Ws., Li, Yh., Xu, N. et al. Effects of 12-week aquatic HIIT on blood pressure lipid profile and BaPWV in postmenopausal women with different ACE genotypes. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-36835-1

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  • Received: 07 October 2025

  • Accepted: 16 January 2026

  • Published: 28 January 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-36835-1

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Keywords

  • Older women
  • Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
  • Metabolic syndrome
  • Atherosclerosis
  • Exercise genomics
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