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Mixed-source introductions successfully enhance the genetic diversity of captive forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii)
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  • Published: 05 February 2026

Mixed-source introductions successfully enhance the genetic diversity of captive forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii)

  • Xianna Lan1,2,
  • Yichen Wang1,2,
  • Yixin Li1,2,
  • Haonan Zhang1,2,
  • Zhengwei Luo1,2,
  • Luyao Hai1,2,
  • Han Jiang1,2,
  • Yuhan Ma1,2,
  • Wangshan Zheng1,2,
  • Pengfei Luo1,2,
  • Yu Zhang1,2,
  • Defu Hu1,2 &
  • …
  • Xinghu Qin1,2 

Scientific Reports , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

Subjects

  • Ecology
  • Evolution
  • Genetics

Abstract

Wild Forest musk deer (FMD) has been declining due to continuing poaching and habitat loss. Although captive breeding has increased population numbers, maintaining genetic diversity in these farmed populations has become increasingly urgent and challenging due to depleted wild stocks and loss of genetic diversity from inbreeding in captive populations. Using samples from 683 individuals, we assessed mitochondrial genetic diversity (ATP8-6, Cytb, control region [CR]), structure, and maternal lineage patterns in a newly established ex-situ population (BB; founded 2019 with 44 breeders) and its three founding source populations (PZH, TZL, GL) in western China. Our results demonstrate that the ex-situ population maintains higher nucleotide diversity (π) in ATP8-6 and Cytb than its source populations, while exhibiting comparable haplotype diversity (Hd). Phylogenetic and haplotype network analyses identified three maternal lineages across populations, with the ex-situ population containing representatives of all lineages and showing significant genetic differentiation from at least some founder groups, indicating the mixed-source introduction strategy successfully created a genetically distinct population. Neutrality tests and mismatch distributions suggested historical bottlenecks in baseline populations, whereas the ex-situ population showed signatures of recent admixture and expansion. These findings highlight the potential benefits of mixed-source introductions in enhancing genetic diversity during ex-situ conservation. We recommend long-term genetic monitoring and in-depth analysis of population history to refine translocation strategies and support the long-term viability of FMD under managed care.

Data availability

The nucleotide sequences generated in this study have been deposited in the GenBank database under the accession numbers PX225528-PX225586 (for ATP8-6) and PX225587-PX225628 (for Cytb). The complete datasets can be directly accessed and browsed via the following public collections: collection for ATP8-6 gene haplotypes: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/myncbi/xianna.lam.1/collections/65825534/public/](https:/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/myncbi/xianna.lam.1/collections/65825534/public); collection for Cytb gene haplotypes: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/myncbi/xianna.lam.1/collections/65825578/public/](https:/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/myncbi/xianna.lam.1/collections/65825578/public).

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Acknowledgements

The authors extend their sincere thanks to the directors of the participating farms for granting permission and facilitating this study: Mr. Wenchuan Zheng, Director of Pien Tze Huang (PZH) farm; Ms. Xiaoju Li, Director of Taiziling (TZL) farm; and Mr. Hong Yang, Director of Guanling (GL) farm. We are also profoundly grateful to the dedicated conservation, veterinary, and husbandry staff at these facilities for their invaluable assistance during sample collection and for their enduring contributions to musk deer conservation. Special acknowledgement is extended to the staff at Nimu Township, Bianba County for their pivotal role in establishing the new ex-situ population in 2019.This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 32302353), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. BLX202323), the Key Technologies Research and Development Program (Grant No. 2023YFC3304000), the National Foreign Experts Program Y type (Grant No. Y20240104), and the National Foreign Experts Program S type (Grant No. S20240184). The funders had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32302353), The Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (BLX202323), Special fund for Beijing Forestry University’s “double world-class project” discipline construction, The National Foreign Experts Program Y type (Y20240104) and S type (S20240184), and the National Key R&D Program of China (2023YFC3304000). The funders had no role in study design, data collection/analysis, or manuscript preparation. The authors declare no competing financial or non-financial interests.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Ecology and Nature Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, Haidian District, China

    Xianna Lan, Yichen Wang, Yixin Li, Haonan Zhang, Zhengwei Luo, Luyao Hai, Han Jiang, Yuhan Ma, Wangshan Zheng, Pengfei Luo, Yu Zhang, Defu Hu & Xinghu Qin

  2. International Machine Learning Laboratory for Biodiversity Research, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China

    Xianna Lan, Yichen Wang, Yixin Li, Haonan Zhang, Zhengwei Luo, Luyao Hai, Han Jiang, Yuhan Ma, Wangshan Zheng, Pengfei Luo, Yu Zhang, Defu Hu & Xinghu Qin

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Contributions

Xianna Lan conceived and designed the study, conducted the experiments, performed data analysis, created all figures and tables, and worte the first draft of the manuscript. Yichen Wang, Yixin Li, Haonan Zhang, Zhengwei Luo, Luyao Hai, Han Jiang, Yuhan Ma, Wangshan Zheng and Pengfei Luo contributed to material preparation and data collection. Yu Zhang assisted in visualization. Defu hu supervised the project, provided conceptual guidance, and acquired funding. Xinghu Qin contributed to data analysis, supervised the research, and reviewed and eited the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Defu Hu or Xinghu Qin.

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Lan, X., Wang, Y., Li, Y. et al. Mixed-source introductions successfully enhance the genetic diversity of captive forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii). Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-37358-5

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  • Received: 12 August 2025

  • Accepted: 21 January 2026

  • Published: 05 February 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-37358-5

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Keywords

  • Moschus berezovskii
  • Conservation genetics
  • Mixed-source introduction
  • Founder population
  • MtDNA
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