Table 8 Photosynthetic traits, leaf area plant⁻¹, and leaf silicon (Si) content of Zea mays L. treated with emamectin benzoate (EMB in bulk and nano forms) and/or green synthesized silicon nanoparticles (GS-SiNPs)-based treatments against invasive S. frugiperda (J. E. Smith) larvae during the 2024 autumn growing season.

Treatment	F_v/F_m	F_v/F_o	PPI_ABS	SPAD-CCI	LA plant⁻¹ (dm²)	Leaf Si content (mg g⁻¹ DW)
Control (only dH₂O)	0.800 ± 0.006d	3.76 ± 0.06c	3.26 ± 0.01d	42.3 ± 0.66d	5.82 ± 0.08d	17.0 ± 0.40c
GS-SiNPs	0.810 ± 0.001a–c	4.33 ± 0.08ab	4.20 ± 0.10b	48.6 ± 0.49a	7.34 ± 0.16a–c	24.5 ± 0.84a
EMB bulk	0.805 ± 0.002b–d	4.25 ± 0.13b	3.67 ± 0.05c	44.8 ± 0.21c	6.85 ± 0.30a–c	18.4 ± 0.48c
¾EMB bulk	0.802 ± 0.001cd	4.26 ± 0.10b	3.70 ± 0.09c	45.1 ± 0.40bc	6.55 ± 0.38cd	18.4 ± 0.09c
EMB-NPs	0.805 ± 0.002b–d	4.30 ± 0.02ab	3.70 ± 0.05c	46.1 ± 0.57ab	7.51 ± 0.34ab	18.3 ± 0.68c
¾EMB-NPs	0.811 ± 0.002a–c	4.30 ± 0.06ab	3.73 ± 0.02c	45.6 ± 0.43bc	6.55 ± 0.29cd	17.3 ± 1.00c
½EMB-NPs	0.809 ± 0.005bc	4.35 ± 0.07ab	3.80 ± 0.04c	45.3 ± 0.60bc	7.49 ± 0.34ab	17.3 ± 0.42c
¾EMB bulk + GS-SiNPs	0.813 ± 0.002ab	4.36 ± 0.03ab	4.14 ± 0.02b	47.2 ± 0.65a–c	7.55 ± 0.06ab	22.7 ± 0.20b
½EMB-NPs + GS-SiNPs	0.816 ± 0.001a	4.48 ± 0.06ab	4.60 ± 0.15a	47.1 ± 0.54a–c	6.64 ± 0.08b–d	23.8 ± 0.22ab
¾EMB-NPs + GS-SiNPs	0.818 ± 0.002a	4.62 ± 0.25a	4.67 ± 0.21a	47.5 ± 1.88ab	7.68 ± 0.36a	23.5 ± 0.20ab
p-value	0.0020**	0.0032**	< 0.0001**	0.0007**	0.0022**	< 0.001**

dH₂O, Distilled water; EMB bulk, Full recommended dose of bulk EMB; ¾EMB bulk, ¾ full recommended dose of bulk EMB; EMB-NPs, Full recommended dose of EMB nanoparticles; ¾EMB-NPs, ¾ full recommended dose of EMB nanoparticles; ½EMB-NPs, ½ full recommended dose of EMB nanoparticles; ¾bulk EMB + GS-SiNPs, Conjunction of ¾ EMB bulk and GS-SiNPs; ½EMB NPs + GS-SiNPs, Conjunction of ½ EMB bulk and GS-SiNPs; ¾EMB NPs + GS-SiNPs, Conjunction of ¾ EMB-NPs and GS-SiNPs. DBT, Day before treatment; DAT, Day after treatment.
** refers to significant differences at p ≤ 0.01. Values are means (n = 4), and treatment means followed by different letters within each column are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05 according to Duncan’s test. F_o: minimal fluorescence (of a dark-adapted sample); F_m: maximum fluorescence (of a dark-adapted sample); F_v: variable fluorescence (calculated as F_m − F_o), F_v/F_m: maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (PSII); F_v/F_o: potential PSII activity; PPI_ABS: photosynthetic performance index on an absorption basis; SPAD-CCI: Soil Plant Analysis Development (SPAD)-chlorophyll content index; LA plant⁻¹: leaf area per plant.

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