Abstract
The formation of cracks in concrete is inevitable and often accelerated by inadequate curing. In many regions, the availability of potable water for external curing is limited, leading to improper curing practices and the development of shrinkage cracks. Resolving this issue is essential to enhancing concrete structures’ long-term performance. In the present study, an alternative approach has been explored to reduce reliance on external curing while enhancing the mechanical and durability properties of concrete. Superabsorbent polymer (SAP) was used as an internal curing agent, and a bacterial self-healing mechanism was employed to mitigate cracks and refine the pore structure of concrete. Four different mixes were prepared for investigation: a control mix, a mix containing SAP, a bacterial concrete mix, and a mix incorporating both superabsorbent polymer and bacteria. A series of tests, including shrinkage, compressive strength, flexural strength, and electrical resistivity, were conducted to evaluate the performance of these mixes. The experimental results confirmed that the inclusion of superabsorbent polymer significantly reduced shrinkage, while the combined use of superabsorbent polymer and bacteria further enhanced the properties of concrete. The combination of superabsorbent polymer and healing agent exhibits a 15.1% and 26.4% improvement in compressive strength in comparison with the control mix at an age of 7 and 28 days. A strong correlation was observed between compressive strength and shrinkage, indicating that reduced shrinkage contributes to improved concrete performance. This study shows that combining superabsorbent polymer and bacterial self-healing offers an effective way to overcome curing challenges and enhance the strength and durability of concrete, especially in water-scarce regions.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data that supports the findings of the study are represented in the article itself. No Separate data sets are used.
References
Venkateswarlu Kuruva, S. V. D. M. M. Impact of superabsorbent polymer on self-compacting concrete’s workability, strength, carbonation and freezing-thawing. Res. Eng. Strucut. Mater. 10(3), 995–1015 (2024).
K. Sree Kumar, S. S. Alisha, K. Vijay, and V. V. S. Sarma, “Mechanical Characterization of Sustainable Concrete Incorporating Bentonite Powder and Sisal Fibre,” in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Institute of Physics, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1280/1/012001.
Behera, M., Bhattacharyya, S. K., Minocha, A. K., Deoliya, R. & Maiti, S. Recycled aggregate from C&D waste & its use in concrete—A breakthrough towards sustainability in construction sector: A review. Constr. Build. Mater. 68, 501–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2014.07.003 (2014).
Chaudhury, R., Sharma, U., Thapliyal, P. C. & Singh, L. P. Low-CO2 emission strategies to achieve net zero target in cement sector. J. Clean Prod. 417, 137466. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2023.137466 (2023).
Li, C., Li, J., Ren, Q., Zheng, Q. & Jiang, Z. Durability of concrete coupled with life cycle assessment: Review and perspective. Cem. Concr. Compos. 139, 105041. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEMCONCOMP.2023.105041 (2023).
Al-Kheetan, M. J. Properties of lightweight pedestrian paving blocks incorporating wheat straw: Micro-to macro-scale investigation. Results Eng. 16, 100758. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RINENG.2022.100758 (2022).
Al-Noaimat, Y. A. et al. Recycled brick aggregates in one-part alkali-activated materials: Impact on 3D printing performance and material properties. Dev. Built Environ. 16, 100248. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.DIBE.2023.100248 (2023).
Zhang, S. & Zong, L. Properties of concrete made with recycled coarse aggregate from waste brick. Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy 33(4), 1283–1289. https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.11880 (2014).
Xiao, Z. et al. Properties of partition wall blocks prepared with high percentages of recycled clay brick after exposure to elevated temperatures. Constr. Build. Mater. 49, 56–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.08.004 (2013).
Zong, L., Fei, Z. & Zhang, S. Permeability of recycled aggregate concrete containing fly ash and clay brick waste. J. Clean Prod. 70, 175–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.040 (2014).
Kou, S. C. & Poon, C. S. Enhancing the durability properties of concrete prepared with coarse recycled aggregate. Constr. Build. Mater. 35, 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.02.032 (2012).
Tam, V. W. Y., Gao, X. F. & Tam, C. M. Microstructural analysis of recycled aggregate concrete produced from two-stage mixing approach. Cem. Concr. Res. 35(6), 1195–1203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.10.025 (2005).
Silva, R. V., De Brito, J. & Dhir, R. K. Properties and composition of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste suitable for concrete production. Constr. Build. Mater. 65, 201–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.117 (2014).
Whwah, M. S., Mahmmod, L. M. R., Abdoulhaleem, H. H. & Dulaimi, A. Internal curing utilising recycled concrete aggregate: A sustainable approach for improving high-strength concrete’s performance. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 50(11), 8061–8076. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-024-09187-z (2025).
Mechtcherine, V. et al. Application of super absorbent polymers (SAP) in concrete construction—update of RILEM state-of-the-art report. Mater. Struct. Materiaux et Constr. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-021-01668-z (2021).
Zhong, P. et al. Internal curing with superabsorbent polymers of different chemical structures. Cem. Concr. Res. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.105789 (2019).
Wang, K., Dong, K., Guo, J. & Du, H. Absorption and release mechanism of superabsorbent polymers and its impact on shrinkage and durability of internally cured concrete—A review. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e03909 (2024).
Lyu, J., Feng, S., Chen, J., Kong, D. & Song, R. The water absorption and release performance and mechanism of superabsorbent polymers in the solution and paste. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2025.e04955 (2025).
Craeye, B., Geirnaert, M. & De Schutter, G. Super absorbing polymers as an internal curing agent for mitigation of early-age cracking of high-performance concrete bridge decks. Constr. Build. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.06.063 (2011).
K. Vijay and M. Murmu, Experimental study on bacterial concrete using bacillus subtilis micro-organism, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1404-3_20.
Vijay, K. & Murmu, M. Evaluating durability parameters of concrete containing bacteria and basalt fiber. J. Build. Pathol. Rehabilit. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41024-021-00138-x (2022).
Vijay, K., Murmu, M. & Deo, S. V. Bacteria based self healing concrete—A review. Constr. Build. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.07.040 (2017).
Mondal, S. & Ghosh, A. D. Investigation into the optimal bacterial concentration for compressive strength enhancement of microbial concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 183, 202–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.06.176 (2018).
Seifan, M., Samani, A. K. & Berenjian, A. Bioconcrete: Next generation of self-healing concrete. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-016-7316-z (2016).
“Bacteria-based self-healing concrete,” 2011.
Luo, M., Qian, C. X. & Li, R. Y. Factors affecting crack repairing capacity of bacteria-based self-healing concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 87, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.03.117 (2015).
Chithambar Ganesh, A., Muthukannan, M., Malathy, R. & Ramesh Babu, C. An experimental study on effects of bacterial strain combination in fibre concrete and self-healing efficiency. KSCE J. Civil Eng. 23(10), 4368–4377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-019-1661-2 (2019).
Vijay, K. & Murmu, M. Self-repairing of concrete cracks by using bacteria and basalt fiber. SN Appl. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1404-5 (2019).
Ameri, F., Shoaei, P., Bahrami, N., Vaezi, M. & Ozbakkaloglu, T. Optimum rice husk ash content and bacterial concentration in self-compacting concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 222, 796–813. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.06.190 (2019).
Pannem, R. M., Bashaveni, B. & Kalaiselvan, S. The effect of fly ash aggregates on the self-healing capacity of bacterial concrete. Ain Shams Eng. J. 15(1), 102261. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ASEJ.2023.102261 (2024).
Wang, H., Wu, K., Wang, L., Zhou, L. & Wang, Z. Investigation into the frost resistance of self-healing concrete with recycled aggregates modification - incorporating microbial precipitation mineralization on the surface of recycled aggregates. Constr. Build. Mater. 494, 143328. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2025.143328 (2025).
Bashaveni, B. & Pannem, R. M. R. Development of self-healing property in self compacting concrete. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 20, e02942. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CSCM.2024.E02942 (2024).
Soleimanbeigi, A., Hayati, P., Sobhani, J. & Saffarian, P. Synergistic effects of Sporosarcina ureae and silica fume on self-healing and plastic shrinkage cracks in bio-green concrete pavement. Results Eng. 26, 105526. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RINENG.2025.105526 (2025).
Li, X., Liang, X., Li, Z. & Ye, Y. Preparation, microstructural characterization, and bio-corrosion resistance of novel high-performance marine concrete admixture. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 23, e05239. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CSCM.2025.E05239 (2025).
Vijay, K. & Murmu, M. Effect of calcium lactate on compressive strength and self-healing of cracks in microbial concrete. Front. Struct. Civ. Eng. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11709-018-0494-2 (2018).
Jadhav, U. U. et al. Viability of bacterial spores and crack healing in bacteria-containing geopolymer. Constr. Build. Mater. 169, 716–723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.039 (2018).
Luo, M. & Qian, C. Influences of bacteria-based self-healing agents on cementitious materials hydration kinetics and compressive strength. Constr. Build. Mater. 121, 659–663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.06.075 (2016).
Javeed, Y., Goh, Y., Mo, K. H., Yap, S. P. & Leo, B. F. Microbial self-healing in concrete: A comprehensive exploration of bacterial viability, implementation techniques, and mechanical properties. J. Market. Res. 29, 2376–2395. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JMRT.2024.01.261 (2024).
De Muynck, W., Cox, K., De Belie, N. & Verstraete, W. Bacterial carbonate precipitation as an alternative surface treatment for concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 22(5), 875–885. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2006.12.011 (2008).
Nosouhian, F., Mostofinejad, D. & Hasheminejad, H. Concrete durability improvement in a sulfate environment using bacteria. J. Mater. Civil Eng. 28(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001337 (2016).
Jonkers, H. M., Thijssen, A., Muyzer, G., Copuroglu, O. & Schlangen, E. Application of bacteria as self-healing agent for the development of sustainable concrete. Ecol. Eng. 36, 230–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2008.12.036 (2010).
B. Madhu Sudana Reddy and D. Revathi, “An experimental study on effect of Bacillus sphaericus bacteria in crack filling and strength enhancement of concrete,” In: Materials Today: Proceedings, Elsevier Ltd, 2019, pp. 803–809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.08.135.
Wang, J. Y., Snoeck, D., Van Vlierberghe, S., Verstraete, W. & De Belie, N. Application of hydrogel encapsulated carbonate precipitating bacteria for approaching a realistic self-healing in concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 68, 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.06.018 (2014).
IS 10262 : 2019, “Concrete Mix Proportioning–Guidelines (Second Revision),” 2019, Bureau of Indian Standards New Delhi, India.
IS 516 (Part 1/Sec 1) : 2021, “Hardened Concrete - Methods of Test - Part 1 Testing of Strength of Hardened Concrete - Section 1 Compressive, Flexural and Split Tensile Strength,” 2021, Bureau of Indian Standards New Delhi, India.
Bentz, D. P. & Snyder, K. A. Protected paste volume in concrete: Extension to internal curing using saturated lightweight fine aggregate. Cem. Concr. Res. 29(11), 1863–1867. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00178-7 (1999).
Huang, X. et al. Effect of super-absorbent polymer (SAP) incorporation method on mechanical and shrinkage properties of internally cured concrete. Materials https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217854 (2022).
Jonkers, H. & Schlangen, E. Development of a bacteria-based self healing concrete. Tailor Made Concr. Struct. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781439828410.ch72 (2008).
Wang, J. Y., Soens, H., Verstraete, W. & De Belie, N. Self-healing concrete by use of microencapsulated bacterial spores. Cem. Concr. Res. 56, 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEMCONRES.2013.11.009 (2014).
Siddique, R. et al. Influence of bacteria on compressive strength and permeation properties of concrete made with cement baghouse filter dust. Constr. Build. Mater. 106, 461–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.112 (2016).
L. M. Mauludin, A. Susanto, Keryanti, G. Widiarnoko, and M. Hafizh, “Alginate encapsulation technology of bacteria for promising self-healing concrete,” in E3S Web of Conferences, EDP Sciences, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202447904002.
De Muynck, W., De Belie, N. & Verstraete, W. Microbial carbonate precipitation in construction materials: A review. Ecol Eng 36(2), 118–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2009.02.006 (2010).
Wang, J., Van Tittelboom, K., De Belie, N. & Verstraete, W. Use of silica gel or polyurethane immobilized bacteria for self-healing concrete. Constr Build Mater 26(1), 532–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.06.054 (2012).
Jalal, A. & Kiran, R. Quantifying the water donation potential of commercial and corn starch hydrogels in a cementitious matrix. J. Market. Res. 24, 4336–4352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.04.031 (2023).
Jalal, A. & Kiran, R. Sustainable biobased hydrogel as an alternative air-entrainment agent in cement-based materials. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 36(11), 04024342. https://doi.org/10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-17763 (2024).
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Kunamineni Vijay, V V S Sarma, and Kuruva Venkateswarulu: conceptualizaton, investigation, methodology, visualization, validation, writing—original draft. A Uday Kumar and Kemal Detu: methodology, validation, visualization, writing—original draft. Panga Narasimha Reddy: conceptualization, investigation, writing—review and editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Vijay, K., Sarma, V.V.S., Kuruva, V. et al. A bio-polymeric strategy for enhancing the strength, durability of concrete and shrinkage reduction. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-38804-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-38804-0
