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Concurrent Toxoplasma gondii infection and neuroinflammation in traumatic brain injury patients in a referral hospital in Douala Cameroon
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  • Published: 12 March 2026

Concurrent Toxoplasma gondii infection and neuroinflammation in traumatic brain injury patients in a referral hospital in Douala Cameroon

  • Franklin Chu Buh1,
  • Germain Sotoing Taiwe1,
  • Andrew I. R. Maas2,
  • Mathieu Motah3,
  • Ignatius Esene4,
  • Firas H. Kobeissy5,7,
  • Vanessa Tita Jugha1,
  • Eric Youm6,
  • Basil Kum Meh1,
  • Kevin W. Wang7,
  • Peter J. A. Hutchinson8 &
  • …
  • Irene Ule Ngole Sumbele1 

Scientific Reports , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

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We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

Subjects

  • Biomarkers
  • Medical research
  • Neuroscience
  • Pathogenesis

Abstract

Studies on murine models show that Toxoplasma gondii infection reduces cerebral microvascular perfusion and induces neuroinflammation by activating cerebral endothelial cells, which could affect traumatic brain injury (TBI) outcomes. Whether TBI inflammatory profile and outcomes differ in persons with concurrent latent infection with Toxoplasma gondii has not yet been elucidated in TBI patients, constituting the core of this study. Understanding the impact of chronic T. gondii infection on neuroinflammation after TBI may ensure better management and prognosis of TBI. This study aimed to investigate the inflammatory profile in TBI patients and investigate the influence of concurrent T. gondii infection on inflammatory markers and TBI outcomes. The level of inflammatory markers [interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-10, interferon-gamma (INF-ɣ), Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)], and Toxoplasma gondii infection were detected in serum obtained < 24 h post-injury. Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended (GOSE) was used to evaluate the 6-month outcome post-discharge. The Wilcoxon and Kruskal-Wallis’s rank sum tests were used to compare concentrations of inflammatory markers to T. gondii infection and TBI outcome. T. gondii infection was detected in 33% (52/160) of TBI cases. There was a significant increase (p < 0.001) in the concentrations of all inflammatory markers (IM) in TBI patients compared with the healthy controls. Higher levels of IL-6, INF-ɣ, and TNF-α were associated with mortality. Findings from this study show an increase in IM levels for all the T. gondii-positive TBI cases, which were significant for IL-1β (P < 0.001) and TNF-α (P < 0.001). IL-1β and TNF-α, had significantly greater density values, above 30pg/mL and 90pg/mL, respectively, in TBI patients infected with T. gondii, compared to greater density values, below 30 pg/mL and 90 pg/mL, respectively, for TBI patients seronegative to T. gondii. Concurrent T. gondii infection in TBI significantly influenced the inflammation profile of patients. Further multicenter studies with larger sample sizes will provide more insights into T. gondii induced neuropathology and prognostication in TBI care.

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Data availability

The data sets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

TBI:

Traumatic Brain Injury

SSA:

Sub-Saharan Africa

LMICs:

Low-middle-income countries

IL:

Interleukin

INF-ɣ:

Interferon-gamma

TNF-α:

Tumour necrosis factor-alpha

GOSE:

Glasgow-coma outcome scale extended

CT:

Computed tomography

LHD:

Laquintinie hospital douala

GBD:

Global burden of diseases

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Acknowledgements

We thank the administration and health personnel of the Laquintinie Hospital Douala for facilitating the data collection phase and to LabEx Physiology, Pharmacological Targets and Therapeutics of the University of Buea, Cameroon for their assistance laboratory analysis. The research was funded by the NIHR ref: NIHR132455 using UK aid from the UK Government to support global health research. The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NIHR or the UK Government.

Funding

The research was funded by the NIHR ref: NIHR132455 using UK aid from the UK Government to support global health research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Animal Biology and Conservation, Faculty of Science, University of Buea, P.O. Box 63, Buea, Cameroon

    Franklin Chu Buh, Germain Sotoing Taiwe, Vanessa Tita Jugha, Basil Kum Meh & Irene Ule Ngole Sumbele

  2. Department of Neurosurgery, Antwerp University Hospital, University of Antwerp, Edegem, 2000, Belgium

    Andrew I. R. Maas

  3. Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Douala, P.O. Box 2701, Douala, Cameroon

    Mathieu Motah

  4. Department of Neurosurgery, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Bamenda, Bamenda, Cameroon

    Ignatius Esene

  5. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Riad El-Solh, P.O. Box 11-0236, Beirut, Lebanon

    Firas H. Kobeissy

  6. Holo Healthcare, Nairobi, 00400, Kenya

    Eric Youm

  7. Center for Neurotrauma, Multiomics & Biomarkers (CNMB), Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine, 720 Westview Dr SW, Atlanta, GA, 30310-1458, USA

    Firas H. Kobeissy & Kevin W. Wang

  8. Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK

    Peter J. A. Hutchinson

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  1. Franklin Chu Buh
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  2. Germain Sotoing Taiwe
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Contributions

F.C.B.: study design, data collection, Laboratory analysis, writing, G.S.T; study design, editing, A.I.R.M.: study design, editing, M.M.: study design, F.H.K.: editing, V.T.J.: Laboratory analysis, E.Y.: data analysis, B.K.M.: editing; K.W.W.: editing, P.J.A.H.: study design, editing, I.U.N.S.: study design, editing, and validation.All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Franklin Chu Buh or Germain Sotoing Taiwe.

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Ethical clearance for the study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of the Faculty of Health Sciences (IRB-FHS), University of Buea (Reference N◦ 1238-08), and administrative authorization was obtained from LHD. Informed consent was given by the participants or their family members, and all data collected was kept strictly confidential with physical and electronic barriers.

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Buh, F.C., Taiwe, G.S., Maas, A.I.R. et al. Concurrent Toxoplasma gondii infection and neuroinflammation in traumatic brain injury patients in a referral hospital in Douala Cameroon. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-40284-1

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  • Received: 08 May 2025

  • Accepted: 11 February 2026

  • Published: 12 March 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-40284-1

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Keywords

  • Inflammatory markers
  • Neuroinflammation
  • Neuropathology
  • Traumatic brain injury
  • Toxoplasma gondii
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