Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

Advertisement

Scientific Reports
  • View all journals
  • Search
  • My Account Login
  • Content Explore content
  • About the journal
  • Publish with us
  • Sign up for alerts
  • RSS feed
  1. nature
  2. scientific reports
  3. articles
  4. article
Experimental study on layered cemented tailings backfill damage and failure mechanisms under blast loading
Download PDF
Download PDF
  • Article
  • Open access
  • Published: 28 February 2026

Experimental study on layered cemented tailings backfill damage and failure mechanisms under blast loading

  • Hongjie Qiu1,
  • Xianyang Qiu1,
  • Rihong Cao1,
  • Xin Chen1,
  • Xiuzhi Shi1,
  • Zhigang Tian2 &
  • …
  • Xiaoyuan Li1,3 

Scientific Reports , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

  • 692 Accesses

  • Metrics details

We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

Subjects

  • Engineering
  • Natural hazards
  • Solid Earth sciences

Abstract

The stability of cemented tailings backfill (CTB) is critical for the safe operation of underground mines. Inevitably, operational constraints introduce two types of layered interfaces within CTB: transition heterogeneous structural interface (THSI) and continuous homogeneous structural interface (CHSI), thereby transforming CTB into layered cemented tailings backfill (LCTB). In this study, three-dimensional physical models were developed to simulate rock–backfill systems in underground mines. Five blasting tests were conducted to investigate the effects of charge position and LCTB strength configuration. The analyses focused on dynamic volumetric strain responses (Δk, defined as the attenuation ratio of the first peak volumetric strain εv(max) at identical distances), pre- and post-blast sonic velocity change rates (η, used to quantify damage severity), as well as damage morphology and failure evolution.The results indicate that the dynamic failure of the rock–backfill system proceeds through three sequential stages: crack initiation and backfill extrusion, crack propagation and blasting gas invasion, and rock–backfill system destruction. For LCTB containing a THSI, placing the charge within the high-strength LCTB layer accelerates the attenuation of εv(max), reflected by an increase in Δk (from 0.71 to 2.32), while the damage index η (from < 13% to < 8%) decreases progressively. Conversely, for LCTB containing a CHSI, aligning the charge with the CHSI elevation results in more convergent εv(max) attenuation behavior, with Δk decreasing from 2.54 to 1.32, accompanied by reduced damage levels (η < 10%). These results suggest that, under the investigated model conditions, positioning the charge within the high-strength layer in the presence of a THSI, or aligning the charge with the CHSI, is favorable for mitigating LCTB degradation. The findings provide a mechanistic basis for understanding charge–layered interface interactions in two-step stope blasting and offer engineering-relevant insight into charge placement in layered cemented backfill systems.

Similar content being viewed by others

Mechanical properties and energy evolution of cemented tailings-rock powder backfill under uniaxial compression: effect of rock powder type and content

Article Open access 20 January 2026

Effect of inter-layer thickness on dynamic mechanical properties of rock mass combined with hard and soft media

Article Open access 24 December 2025

Experimental study on the mechanism of rockburst in tunnel construction by drilling and blasting construction in high ground stress stratum

Article Open access 14 March 2025

Data availability

The datasets generated during and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

CTB:

Cemented tailings backfill

LCTB/LCTBb/LCTBt :

Layered cemented tailings backfill (bottom and top layers)

THSI/CHSI:

Transition heterogeneous / continuous homogeneous structural interface

k/k b/k t :

Attenuation gradient of the first peak volumetric strain (including bottom / top)

Δk :

Relative attenuation ratio of the first peak volumetric strain between layers

η/η b/η t :

Relative change rate of sonic velocity (bottom and top layers)

η 1(max) ~ η 5(max) :

Maximum relative change rate of wave velocity in Models 1 to 5

Δη/Δη 1 ~ Δη 5 :

Difference in the relative change rate of wave velocity between layers

ε v/ε v(max) :

Volumetric strain / First peak volumetric strain

ε v(S1) ~ ε v(S4) :

Peak volumetric strain recorded at strain bricks S1 to S4

Pb/Pm/Pt :

Charge positions at the bottom, middle, and top of the model

References

  1. Liang, W. et al. Experimental study on the interaction between backfill and surrounding rock in the overhand cut-and-fill method. Minerals 12, 1017. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12081017 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Yin, S. et al. Active roof-contact: The future development of cemented paste backfill. Constr. Build. Mater. 370, 130657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130657 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  3. Zou, S., Cao, S. & Yilmaz, E. Enhancing flexural property and mesoscopic mechanism of cementitious tailings backfill fabricated with 3D-printed polymers. Constr. Build. Mater. 414, 135009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.135009 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  4. Li, S., Zou, P., Yu, H., Hu, B. & Wang, X. Advantages of backfill mining method for small and medium-sized mines in China: Safe, eco-friendly, and efficient mining. Appl. Sci. 13, 7280. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13127280 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  5. Xue, G., Yilmaz, E. & Wang, Y. Progress and prospects of mining with backfill in metal mines in China. Int. J. Min. Metall. Mater. 30, 1455–1473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12613-023-2663-0 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  6. Zhu, P., Song, W., Cao, S., Wang, F. & Zheng, D. Tensile mechanical response mechanism of cemented backfills under blasting load. J. Min. Saf. Eng. 35, 605–611. https://doi.org/10.13545/j.cnki.jmse.2018.03.022 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  7. Cao, S., Yilmaz, E. & Song, W. Dynamic response of cement-tailings matrix composites under SHPB compression load. Constr. Build. Mater. 186, 892–903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.08.009 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  8. Chen, X. et al. High strain rate compressive strength behavior of cemented paste backfill using split hopkinson pressure bar. Int. J. Min. Sci. Technol. 31, 387–399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2021.03.008 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  9. Tan, Y., Davide, E., Zhou, Y., Song, W. & Meng, X. Long-term mechanical behavior and characteristics of cemented tailings backfill through impact loading. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater. 27, 140–151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12613-019-1878-6 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  10. Zheng, D., Song, W., Cao, S., Li, J. & Sun, L. Investigation on dynamical mechanics, energy dissipation, and microstructural characteristics of cemented tailings backfill under SHPB tests. Minerals 11, 542. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11050542 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  11. Jiang, M., Sun, W., Li, J., Fan, K. & Liu, Z. Analysis of fracture characteristics and energy consumption of full tailings cemented backfill under impact load. Rock. Soil. Mech. 44, 186–196. https://doi.org/10.16285/j.rsm.2022.0926 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  12. Zhao, Y., Yang, R., Fang, S., Wang, Y. & Wang, W. Model experimental study on strain field evolution and damage distribution of filling body under blast loading. Constr. Build. Mater. 373, 130798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130798 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  13. Zhao, Y., Yang, R., Zuo, J., Liu, Z. & Wang, W. Dynamic response characteristics of backfill under blasting disturbance simulated through a three-dimensional model. Constr. Build. Mater. 443, 137685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.137685 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  14. Emad, M. Z., Mitri, H. S. & Henning, J. G. Effect of blast vibrations on the stability of cemented rockfill. Int. J. Min. Reclam. Environ. 26, 233–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/17480930.2012.707527 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  15. Emad, M. Z. Numerical modelling approach for mine backfill. Sadhana 42, 1595–1604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12046-017-0702-0 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  16. Emad, M. Z., Mitri, H. & Kelly, C. Dynamic model validation using blast vibration monitoring in mine backfill. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 107, 48–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2018.04.047 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Suazo, G. & Villavicencio, G. Numerical simulation of the blast response of cemented paste backfilled stopes. Comput. Geotech. 100, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2018.04.007 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  18. Li, G., Deng, G. & Ma, J. Numerical modelling of the response of cemented paste backfill under the blasting of an adjacent ore stope. Constr. Build. Mater. 343, 128051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128051 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  19. Xia, Z. et al. Energy transfer and damage evolution process research of ore rock-filling body under the blasting load. Minerals 12, 1362. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12111362 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  20. Hu, J. et al. Dynamic response mechanism of a rock-filling interfacial coupling body to blasting in it, Explos. Shock Waves. 41, 164–178 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  21. Li, X. et al. Study on energy dissipation characteristics and damage law of backfill under cyclic impact. Shock Vib. 2022, 7618440. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7618440 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  22. Wang, J. Research and application of damage and failure evolution mechanism and strength model of layered cemented tailings backfill. Fuzhou Univ. https://doi.org/10.26945/d.cnki.gbjku.2021.000111 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  23. Jiang, L., Su, Y. & Dai, Q. Dynamic response mechanisms of layered cemented backfill pillars under horizontal stress wave disturbance of far-field blasting. Chin. J. Rock Mech. Eng. 39, 34–44. https://doi.org/10.13722/j.cnki.jrme.2019.0463 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  24. Wang, J., Fu, J., Song, W., Zhang, Y. & Wang, Y. Mechanical behavior, acoustic emission properties and damage evolution of cemented paste backfill considering structural feature. Constr. Build. Mater. 261, 119958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119958 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  25. Wang, Z. et al. Impact of weak interlayer characteristics on the mechanical behavior and failure modes of cemented tailings backfill: A study on thickness, strength, and dip angle. Eng. Fail. Anal. 165, 108795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2024.108795 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  26. Zhang, Y., Xu, W. & Chen, W. The investigation into the mechanical properties and failure mechanisms of stratified cemented tailings backfill with enhancement layer under triaxial compression. Eng. Fail. Anal. 182, 110128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2025.110128 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  27. Li, J. et al. Influence of layered angle on dynamic characteristics of backfill under impact loading. Minerals 12, 511. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12050511 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Lin, H. et al. Mechanical properties and fracture evolution of layered gangue-cemented backfill. Mining Metall. Explor. 41, 3119–3131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-024-01097-w (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  29. Chen, X. et al. Micro-mechanism of uniaxial compression damage of layered cemented backfill in underground mine. Materials 15, 4846. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15144846 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  30. Meguid, M. A., Saada, O., Nunes, M. A. & Mattar, J. Physical modeling of tunnels in soft ground: A review. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 23, 185–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2007.02.003 (2008).

    Google Scholar 

  31. Liang, X. et al. Visualization study on stress evolution and crack propagation of jointed rock mass under blasting load. Eng. Fract. Mech. 296, 109833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2023.109833 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  32. Shen, Y. et al. Experiments and discrete element simulations on the influence of symmetrical forms of joints on the propagation of blasting cracks. Eng. Fract. Mech. 320, 111072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2025.111072 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  33. Zhang, F. et al. Explosive stress wave propagation and fracture characteristics of rock-like materials with weak filling defects. Eng. Fract. Mech. 308, 110372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2024.110372 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  34. Huo, X. et al. Experimental and numerical investigation on the peak value and loading rate of borehole wall pressure in decoupled charge blasting. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 170, 105535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2023.105535 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  35. Li, X. et al. Study on the bench cast-blasting effects influenced by explosive specific charge. Trans. Beijing Inst. Technol. 36, 1233–1236. https://doi.org/10.15918/j.tbit1001-0645.2016.12.005 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  36. Huo, X. et al. Attenuation characteristics of blasting stress under decoupled cylindrical charge. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 56, 4185–4209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-023-03286-3 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  37. Cheney, J. A., Brown, R. K., Dhat, N. R. & Hor, O. Y. Z. Modeling free-field conditions in centrifuge models. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 116, 1347–1367. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1990)116:9(1347) (1990).

    Google Scholar 

  38. Turan, A., Hinchberger, S. D. & El Naggar, H. Design and commissioning of a laminar soil container for use on small shaking tables. Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 29, 404–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2008.04.003 (2009).

    Google Scholar 

  39. Dong, Y., Xia, C. & Duan, Z. Numerical analysis of plane explosive wave propagation with its attenuation behavior in semi-infinite medium. Eng. Mech. 23, 60–65. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-4750.2006.02.011 (2006).

    Google Scholar 

  40. Xiao, J.-Q., Ding, D.-X., Jiang, F.-L. & Xu, G. Fatigue damage variable and evolution of rock subjected to cyclic loading. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 47, 461–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2009.11.003 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  41. Zhong, G., Ao, L. & Fu, Y. Model experimental studies of vibration effect and damage evolution of tunnel’s surrounding rock under cyclic blasting excavation. Explos Shock Waves. 36, 853–860. https://doi.org/10.11883/1001-1455(2016)06-0853-08 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  42. Lv, G. & Zhou, C. Damage characteristics of grouted tunnel rock mass in fault zones induced by blasting. Chin. J. Rock. Mech. Eng. 40, 2038–2047. https://doi.org/10.13722/j.cnki.jrme.2021.0390 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  43. Palchik, V. Is there link between the type of the volumetric strain curve and elastic constants, porosity, stress and strain characteristics?. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 46, 315–326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-012-0263-9 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  44. Sainsbury, B.-A. Consideration of the volumetric changes that accompany rock mass failure. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 52, 277–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-018-1560-8 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  45. Zhao, K., Huang, Z. & Yu, B. Damage characterization of red sandstones using uniaxial compression experiments. RSC Adv. 8, 40267–40278. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8RA06972G (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  46. Lin, Q., Song, T., Lu, D. & Du, X. A novel analytical method for describing ground motion behaviour caused by tunnel excavation. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 161, 106546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2025.106546 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  47. Fan, L. F., Wang, L. J. & Wu, Z. J. Wave transmission across linearly jointed complex rock masses. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 112, 193–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2018.09.004 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  48. Li, W., Fang, S., Zhu, Y. & Li, G. Effect of rock wave impedance on dynamic mechanical response in SHPB experiments. Geotech. Geol. Eng. 43, 118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-025-03087-1 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  49. Seinov, N. P. & Chevkin, A. I. Effect of fissure on the fragmentation of a medium by blasting. Sov. Min. Sci. 4, 254–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02501547 (1968).

    Google Scholar 

  50. Hu, X. & Duan, K. Size effect: Influence of proximity of fracture process zone to specimen boundary. Eng. Fract. Mech. 74, 1093–1100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2006.12.009 (2007).

    Google Scholar 

  51. Wang, Y. & Hu, X. Determination of tensile strength and fracture toughness of granite using notched three-point-bend samples. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 50, 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-016-1098-6 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  52. Hu, X., Guan, J., Wang, Y., Keating, A. & Yang, S. Comparison of boundary and size effect models based on new developments. Eng. Fract. Mech. 175, 146–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2017.02.005 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation Project of China (Grant No. 52374152), and the Guangxi Key R&D Plan (Grant No.2022AB31023), and the Postgraduate Scientific Research Innovation Project of Hunan Province (Grant No. CX20250283) for carrying out this research work.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52374152), the Guangxi Key R&D Plan (Grant No. 2022AB31023), and the Postgraduate Scientific Research Innovation Project of Hunan Province (Grant No. CX20250283).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Resources and Safety Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China

    Hongjie Qiu, Xianyang Qiu, Rihong Cao, Xin Chen, Xiuzhi Shi & Xiaoyuan Li

  2. Shenzhen Zhongjin Lingnan Nonfemet Co., Ltd, Shaoguan, 512325, China

    Zhigang Tian

  3. Guangxi Zhongjin Lingnan Panlong Lead-Zinc Mining Co., Ltd, Laibin, 546100, China

    Xiaoyuan Li

Authors
  1. Hongjie Qiu
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Xianyang Qiu
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Rihong Cao
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Xin Chen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Xiuzhi Shi
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Zhigang Tian
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Xiaoyuan Li
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Hongjie Qiu - Conceptualisation, Data Curation, Operational Experiment, Methodology, Software, Visualisation, Writing-Original Writing-Review & Editing; Xianyang Qiu - Conceptualisation, Funding Acquisition Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing-Original Draft, Writing-Review &Editing; Rihong Cao - Supervision, Validation; Xin Chen - Data Curation, Investigation; Xiuzhi Shi - Supervision, Guidance; Zhigang Tian - Experimental Site, Safety Management; Xiaoyuan Li - Experimental Site.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Xianyang Qiu.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Qiu, H., Qiu, X., Cao, R. et al. Experimental study on layered cemented tailings backfill damage and failure mechanisms under blast loading. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-40868-x

Download citation

  • Received: 25 December 2025

  • Accepted: 16 February 2026

  • Published: 28 February 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-40868-x

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Keywords

  • Layered cemented tailings backfill
  • Blast loading
  • Physical modeling
  • Layered interface
Download PDF

Advertisement

Explore content

  • Research articles
  • News & Comment
  • Collections
  • Subjects
  • Follow us on Facebook
  • Follow us on X
  • Sign up for alerts
  • RSS feed

About the journal

  • About Scientific Reports
  • Contact
  • Journal policies
  • Guide to referees
  • Calls for Papers
  • Editor's Choice
  • Journal highlights
  • Open Access Fees and Funding

Publish with us

  • For authors
  • Language editing services
  • Open access funding
  • Submit manuscript

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

  • Explore articles by subject
  • Find a job
  • Guide to authors
  • Editorial policies

Scientific Reports (Sci Rep)

ISSN 2045-2322 (online)

nature.com footer links

About Nature Portfolio

  • About us
  • Press releases
  • Press office
  • Contact us

Discover content

  • Journals A-Z
  • Articles by subject
  • protocols.io
  • Nature Index

Publishing policies

  • Nature portfolio policies
  • Open access

Author & Researcher services

  • Reprints & permissions
  • Research data
  • Language editing
  • Scientific editing
  • Nature Masterclasses
  • Research Solutions

Libraries & institutions

  • Librarian service & tools
  • Librarian portal
  • Open research
  • Recommend to library

Advertising & partnerships

  • Advertising
  • Partnerships & Services
  • Media kits
  • Branded content

Professional development

  • Nature Awards
  • Nature Careers
  • Nature Conferences

Regional websites

  • Nature Africa
  • Nature China
  • Nature India
  • Nature Japan
  • Nature Middle East
  • Privacy Policy
  • Use of cookies
  • Legal notice
  • Accessibility statement
  • Terms & Conditions
  • Your US state privacy rights
Springer Nature

© 2026 Springer Nature Limited

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing