Abstract
Iron plays a crucial role in the body, despite being a micronutrient. Prolonged iron deficiency can lead to serious health problems, including anemia. This study aimed to optimize different processing methods and beetroot variants to enhance iron retention and promote factors that facilitate iron absorption. The beetroot was subjected to various processing methods, including pressure cooking, steaming, and open pan processing, and divided into three variants: juice, residue, and juice with residue. Results revealed that folate (31.33 ± 0.57–38.33 ± 0.57 µg/100 g DW), β-carotene (12.33 ± 0.57-21.00 ± 1.00 µg/100 g DW), and saponin (12.66 ± 0.57–17.33 ± 0.57 mg/100 g DW) were retained in juice with residue as compared to other variants. Whereas, iron was retained more in the residue variant, followed by juice with the residue variant after thermal processing. The iron absorption inhibitors, like oxalates, tannins, and calcium, were reduced significantly (p < 0.05) after pressure cooking. Reductions were observed in bioactive compounds, including nitrates, betanin, and vulgaxanthin, by approximately 25%, 91%, and 32%, respectively, in pressure-cooked juice with residue. Despite reductions of these compounds, the overall nutritional improvements make it a favorable option with an iron bioavailability of 4.37 ± 0.05%.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in the published article.
References
Lotfi, M., Azizi, M., Tahmasbi, W. & Bashiri, P. The effects of consuming 6 weeks of beetroot juice (Beta vulgaris L.) on hematological parameters in female soccer players. J. Kermanshah Univ. Med. Sci. 22, 88–93 (2018).
Kaur, N., Agarwal, A. & Sabharwal, M. Food fortification strategies to deliver nutrients for the management of iron deficiency anaemia. Curr. Res. Food Sci. 5, 2094–2107 (2022).
Piskin, E., Cianciosi, D., Gulec, S., Tomas, M. & Capanoglu, E. Iron absorption: factors, limitations, and improvement methods. ACS Omega. 7, 20441–20456 (2022).
Haridas, S., Ramaswamy, J., Natarajan, T. & Nedungadi, P. Micronutrient interventions among vulnerable population over a decade: A systematic review on Indian perspective. Heal Promot Perspect. 12, 151–162 (2022).
Chhikara, N., Kushwaha, K., Sharma, P., Gat, Y. & Panghal, A. Bioactive compounds of beetroot and utilization in food processing industry: A critical review. Food Chem. 272, 192–200 (2019).
Liliana, C. & Oana-Viorela, N. Red beetroot: composition and health effects - a review. J Nutr. Med. Diet. Care 5, (2020).
Nora, M. A. Effect of red beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) intake on the level of some hematological tests in a group of female volunteers. ISABB J. Food Agric. Sci. 8, 10–17 (2018).
Punia Bangar, S., Singh, A., Chaudhary, V., Sharma, N. & Lorenzo, J. M. Beetroot as a novel ingredient for its versatile food applications. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 63, 8403–8427 (2023).
Kumar, M. et al. Jamun (Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels) seed bioactives and its biological activities: A review. Food Biosci. 50, 102109 (2022).
Kumar, M. et al. Apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) seed: A review on health promoting bioactivities and its application as functional food ingredient. Food Biosci. 50, 102155 (2022).
Zor, M., Sengul, M., Karakütük, İ. A. & Odunkıran, A. Changes caused by different cooking methods in some physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity, and mineral composition of various vegetables. J Food Process. Preserv 46, (2022).
Mundassery, A. R. J. Instant fortified soup formulation and method of preparation thereof. India Pat., (2024). 202441067829, filed September 9.
Hussen, E. M. & Endalew, S. A. In vitro antioxidant and free-radical scavenging activities of polar leaf extracts of Vernonia amygdalina. BMC Complement. Med. Ther. 23, 146 (2023).
Lim, J. G., Park, H. & Yoon, K. S. Analysis of saponin composition and comparison of the antioxidant activity of various parts of the quinoa plant (Chenopodium quinoa Willd). Food Sci. Nutr. 8, 694–702 (2020).
Madaan, R., Bansal, G. & Kumar, S. Estimation of total phenols and flavonoids in extracts of actaea spicata roots and antioxidant activity studies. Indian J. Pharm. Sci. 73, 666 (2011).
Akbari, S., Abdurahman, N. H. & Yunus, R. M. Optimization of saponins, phenolics, and antioxidants extracted from fenugreek seeds using microwave-assisted extraction and response surface methodology as an optimizing tool. Comptes Rendus Chim. 22, 714–727 (2019).
Sadasivam, S. A. M. Biochemical Methods (New Age International, 2007).
Nowacka, M. et al. The impact of pulsed electric field on the extraction of bioactive compounds from beetroot. Foods 8, 244 (2019).
Katoch, R. Springer New York, New York, NY,. Methods for nutritional quality evaluation of food materials. Analytical Techniques in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 251–322 (2011).
Stoleru, V. et al. Nutritional and antinutritional compounds in leaves of quinoa. Food Biosci. 45, 101494 (2022).
Abbas, A. M. & Brima, E. I. Determination of citric acid in soft drinks, juice drinks and energy drinks using titration. Int. J. Chem. Stud. 1, 30–34 (2014).
George, W. & Latimer, J. Official Methods Of Analysis Of AOAC International (19th edition)AOAC International, Virginia.USA,. (2012).
Bazzi, A., Kreuz, B. & Fischer, J. Determination of calcium in cereal with flame atomic absoption spectroscopy. J. Chem. Educ. 81, 1042–1044 (2004).
Siang, T. E., Swan Chao, K. & Mizura Shahid, S. Determination of iron in foods by the atomic absorption spectrophotometric and colorimetric methods. Pertanika 12, 313–322 (1989).
Chiranjeevi, K., Channabasavaraj, K. P., Srinivas Reddy, P. & Nagaraju, P. T. Development and validation of spectrophotometric method for quantitative estimation of ritonavir in bulk and pharmaceutical dosage forms. Int. J. ChemTech Res. 3, 58–62 (2011).
Cuniff Patricia. Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International (16th edition). AOAC International, Virginia.USA, (1995).
Farhan, M. et al. Assessment of beetroot powder as nutritional, antioxidant, and sensory evaluation in candies. J. Agric. Food Res. 15, 101023 (2024).
Brodkorb, A. et al. INFOGEST static in vitro simulation of gastrointestinal food digestion. Nat. Protoc. 14, 991–1014 (2019).
Boim, A. G. F., Wragg, J., Canniatti-Brazaca, S. G. & Alleoni, L. R. F. Human intestinal Caco-2 cell line in vitro assay to evaluate the absorption of Cd, Cu, Mn and Zn from urban environmental matrices. Environ. Geochem. Health. 42, 601–615 (2020).
Mohanan Deepu, P., Rammanohar, G., Nandakumar, M. G. & Minsha, N. S. S. Evaluation of toxic heavy metal content in marketed Ayurvedic decoctions using closed vessel microwave digestion in ICPMS. Indian J. Tradit Knowl. (2024).
Oliveira, A. S. et al. Iron-peptide complexes from spent yeast: evaluation of iron absorption using a Caco-2 monolayer. Food Biosci. 56, 103106 (2023).
Lalhminghlui, K. & Jagetia, G. C. Evaluation of the free-radical scavenging and antioxidant activities of Chilauni, Schima wallichii Korth in vitro. Futur Sci. OA 4, (2018).
Mundassery, A., Ramaswamy, J., Natarajan, T., Haridas, S. & Nedungadi, P. Modern and conventional processing technologies and their impact on the quality of different millets. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 33, 2441–2460 (2024).
Gao, Y. et al. Impact of thermal processing on dietary flavonoids. Curr. Opin. Food Sci. 48, 100915 (2022).
Prakash, O., Baskaran, R., Chauhan, A. S. & Kudachikar, V. B. Effect of heat processing on phenolics and their possible transformation in low-sugar high-moisture (LSHM) fruit products from Kainth (Pyrus pashia Buch.-ham ex D. Don) fruit. Food Chem. 370, 130988 (2022).
Kaur, S., Kaur, N., Aggarwal, P. & Grover, K. Bioactive compounds, antioxidant activity, and color retention of beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) powder: effect of steam blanching with refrigeration and storage. J. Food Process. Preserv. 45, 1–10 (2021).
Baião, D., dos Silva, S., Paschoalin, V. M. F. & D. V. T. & Beetroot, a remarkable vegetable: Its nitrate and phytochemical contents can be adjusted in novel formulations to benefit health and support cardiovascular disease therapies. Antioxidants 9, 1–36 (2020).
Keller, R. M., Beaver, L., Prater, M. C. & Hord, N. G. Dietary nitrate and nitrite concentrations in food patterns and dietary supplements. Nutr. Today. 55, 218–226 (2020).
Sharma, S., Kataria, A. & Singh, B. Effect of thermal processing on the bioactive compounds, antioxidative, antinutritional and functional characteristics of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). LWT 160, 113256 (2022).
Sharma, K. et al. Saponins: a concise review on food related aspects, applications and health implications. Food Chem. Adv. 2, 100191 (2023).
Liu, Y. J., Lai, Y. J., Wang, R., Lo, Y. C. & Chiu, C. H. The effect of thermal processing on the saponin profiles of Momordica charantia L. J. Food Qual. 1–7 (2020). (2020).
Mohsen, E. et al. Impact of thermal processing on phytochemical profile and cardiovascular protection of Beta vulgaris L. in hyperlipidemic rats. Sci. Rep. 14, 27539 (2024).
Feitosa, S. et al. Effect of traditional household processes on iron, zinc and copper bioaccessibility in black bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L). Foods 7, 123 (2018).
Latunde-Dada, G. O. Effect of processing on iron levels in and availability from some nigerian vegetables. J. Sci. Food Agric. 53, 355–361 (1990).
World Health Organization. World Health Organization (2024). https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/anaemia
Shin, J. A., Heo, Y., Seo, M., Choi, Y. & Lee, K. T. Effects of cooking methods on the β-carotene levels of selected plant food materials. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 25, 955–963 (2016).
Czarnowska-Kujawska, M., Draszanowska, A. & Starowicz, M. Effect of different cooking methods on the folate content, organoleptic and functional properties of broccoli and spinach. LWT 167, 113825 (2022).
Deol, J. K. & Bains, K. Effect of household cooking methods on nutritional and anti nutritional factors in green cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) pods. J. Food Sci. Technol. 47, 579–581 (2010).
Hailemariam, G. A. & Wudineh, T. A. Effect of cooking methods on ascorbic acid destruction of green leafy vegetables. J. Food Qual. 1–5 (2020). (2020).
Milman, N. T. A review of nutrients and compounds, which promote or inhibit intestinal iron absorption: Making a platform for dietary measures that can reduce iron uptake in patients with genetic haemochromatosis. J. Nutr. Metab. 1–15 (2020).
Jyothi Lakshmi, A., Gupta, S. & Prakash, J. Comparative analysis of influence of promoters and inhibitors on in vitro available iron using two methods. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 57, 559–569 (2006).
Gillooly, M. et al. The effects of organic acids, phytates and polyphenols on the absorption of iron from vegetables. Br. J. Nutr. 49, 331–342 (1983).
Rodrigues, D. B. et al. Trust your gut: Bioavailability and bioaccessibility of dietary compounds. Curr. Res. Food Sci. 5, 228–233 (2022).
Igual, M. et al. The in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion affects the bioaccessibility and bioactivity of Beta vulgaris constituents. Foods 12, 338 (2023).
Sheir, M. A., Ramadan, M. M., El-Messery, T. M. & Mohamed, E. N. Enhancing iron bioavailability and bioactive stability in sweet-sour beetroot sauce through liposomal vitamin C. Food Chem. Adv. 7, 101020 (2025).
Sotelo, A., González-Osnaya, L., Sánchez-Chinchillas, A. & Trejo, A. Role of oxate, phytate, tannins and cooking on iron bioavailability from foods commonly consumed in Mexico. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 61, 29–39 (2010).
Acknowledgements
This work was supported through the Amrita Seed Grant (Proposal ID: ASG2022201), authors acknowledge the support and research funding provided by Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham University. We extend our sincere thanks to Co-investigators of this project Dr. Tharani Devi Natarajan and Dr. Delvin T Robin. The authors acknowledge using Google Collab and Canva to produce data visualization and Minitab statistical and data analysis trial version for data analysis. Authors are grateful to the Department of Food Science and Nutrition, the Amrita Centre for Advanced Research in Ayurveda, and the Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India, for facilitating the seamless research environment. Authors acknowledge the international research collaboration between Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India and the University of Missouri, USA.
Funding
Open access funding provided by Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham. This work was supported by the [Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham] under the Amrita Seed Grant [ASG2022201].
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
AM: Conceptualization, formal analysis, Investigation, Writing-original draft, Visualization; JR: Conceptualization, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Writing-review& editing, Validation; MB: Formal analysis, Writing- review & editing, validation; SK: Investigation; PN: Review & editing; KK: Supervision, Writing-review& editing, Validation.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
Dr Jancirani Ramaswamy reports financial support was provided by Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham University [ASG2022201]. Other authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Ethics approval
The sensory evaluation involving human participants was conducted in accordance with relevant institutional guidelines and regulations for research involving human subjects. The experimental protocol was reviewed and approved by the institutional ethics committee, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham University, under approval number AMRITA/SOE/ADMN/DOA/12/2025/001. A volunteer consent was collected from all participants before participation.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Mundassery, A., Ramaswamy, J., Balachandran, M. et al. Processing-induced modulation of nutraceutical and anti-nutritional profiles of beetroot variants targeting enhanced iron retention. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-41872-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-41872-x
