Abstract
Wild geese form large flocks, benefiting from shared vigilance against predators which increases feeding time. As spring progresses, males invest more in mate-guarding to protect paternity, so we hypothesised that intraspecific aggression would rise with flock size and proximity to first egg dates. We tested this using field observations of four goose species staging in northeast Poland, February–April: one local breeder (nesting in March) and three Arctic-nesting species (laying from late May). Of 662 observed aggressive episodes, 643 (97%) were intraspecific, and aggression in all species increased with flock size. Locally breeding Greylag Geese Anser anser and Arctic-nesting Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis showed consistently high probabilities of aggression (60–80%) throughout, although Barnacle sample sizes were too small for firm conclusions. The other two Arctic-nesting species (Greater White-fronted Anser albifrons and Tundra Bean Goose A. serrirostris) showed aggression rising initially from zero to similarly high levels in the three weeks before departure for nesting areas. No differences were found between geese feeding on grassland versus arable fields (which offered higher food intake). We conclude that the predominance of intraspecific aggression is consistent with increasing mate-guarding (and related close-range social defence) as spring progresses relative to species-specific nesting schedules, and is unlikely to be driven primarily by interspecific competition for food or other types of interactions.
Data availability
Data are provided as a supplementary file.
References
Inglis, I. R. & Lazarus, J. Vigilance and flock size in brent geese: the edge effect. Z. für Tierpsychologie. 57, 193–200 (1981).
Amano, T., Ushiyama, K., Fujita, G. & Higuchi, H. Costs and benefits of flocking in foraging white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons): effects of resource depletion. J. Zool. 269, 111–115 (2006).
Polakowski, M., Broniszewska, M., Jankowiak, Ł. & Kasprzykowski, Z. Co-occurrence with Greylag Geese Anser anser and other factors affecting vigilance in White-fronted Geese Anser albifrons during their spring staging in Central Europe. J. Ornithol. 164 (3), 583–590 (2023a).
Boyd, H. On encounters between wild white-fronted geese in winter flocks. Behaviour 5, 85–129 (1953).
Raveling, D. G. Dominance relationships and agonistic behaviour of Canada geese in winter. Behaviour 37, 291–319 (1970).
Owen, M. Wild Geese of the World. (Batsford, London, 1980).
Prevett, J. P. Family behaviour and age-dependent breeding biology of the Blue Goose Anser caerulescens. Unpubl. Ph.D thesis University of Western Ontario, London, Canada. Accessible at https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1673&context=digitizedtheses (University of Western Ontario, 1972).
Warren, S. M., Fox, A. D., Walsh, A. & O’Sullivan, P. Extended parent-offspring relationships amongst the Greenland White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons flavirostris). Auk 110, 145–148 (1993).
Ely, C. R. Family Stability in Greater White-fronted Geese. Auk 110, 425–435 (1993).
Weegman, M. D. et al. Should I stay or should I go? Fitness costs and benefits of prolonged parent-offspring and sibling associations in an Arctic-nesting goose population Oecologia 181, 809–817 (2016).
Black, J. M. & Owen, M. Parent-offspring relationships in wintering barnacle geese. Anim. Behav. 37, 187–198 (1989a).
Johnson, I. P. & Sibly, R. M. Mate protection in pre-nesting Canada Geese Branta canadensis. Wildfowl 41, 38–42 (1990).
McKinney, F. & Evarts, S. Sexual coercion in waterfowl and other birds. Ornithological Monogr. 49, 163–195 (1998).
Sasanami, T., Matsuzaki, M., Mizushima, S. & Hiyama, G. Sperm storage in the female reproductive tract in birds. J. Reprod. Dev. 59, 334–338 (2013).
Black, J. M. & Owen, M. Variations in pair bond and agonistic behaviors in barnacle geese on the wintering grounds. In Waterfowl in Winter (ed. Weller, D.) 39–57 (University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1988).
Kotrschal, K., Hemetsberger, J. & Dittami, J. Food exploitation by a winter flock of grey- lag geese: behavioral dynamics, competition and social status. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 33, 289–295 (1993).
Drent, R. H. et al. Migratory connectivity in Arctic geese: spring stopovers are the weak links in meeting targets for breeding. J. Ornithol. 148, 501–514 (2007).
Hübner, C. E. et al. The connectivity of spring stopover sites for geese heading to arctic breeding grounds. Ardea 98, 145–154 (2010).
Kölzsch, A. et al. Towards a new understanding of migration timing: slower spring than autumn migration in geese reflects different decision rules for stopover use and departure. Oikos 125 (10), 1496–1507 (2016).
Farmer, A. H. & Parent, A. H. Effects of the landscape on shorebird movements at spring migration stopovers. Condor 99, 698–707 (1997).
Verkuil, Y. et al. Migrating Broad-billed Sandpipers achieve high fuelling rates by taking a multi-course meal. Wader Study Group. Bull. 110, 15–20 (2006).
Polakowski, M. & Kasprzykowski, Z. Differences in the use of foraging grounds by Greylag Goose Anser anser and White–fronted Goose Anser albifrons at a spring stopover site. Avian Biol. Res. 9 (4), 265–272 (2016).
Fox, A. D. & Leafloor, J. O. (eds) A Global Audit of the Status and Trends of Arctic and Northern Hemisphere Goose Populations (Component 2: Population accounts) (Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna International Secretariat, Akureyri, Iceland, 2016).
Polakowski, M., Broniszewska, M., Jankowiak, Ł. & Fox, A. D. Food on a plate: Wild geese maintain higher food intake rates on uniform winter cereals fields versus diverse grasslands. Sci. Sci. Total Environ. 898, 165447 (2023b).
BirdLife International. Datazone: Selection of Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas. Accessible at https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/ibacriteria. (accessed 5 September 2025).
Krajewski, Ł., Golawski, A., Jankowiak, Ł. & Polakowski, M. Impact of water level on spring bird assemblages in a natural river valley in central Europe. Eur. Zool. J. 90 (1), 139–149 (2023).
Polakowski, M. et al. Numbers and dynamics of spring migration of geese in the Biebrza Basin. Ornis Pol. 52, 169–180 (2011).
Polakowski, M., Kasprzykowski, Z. & Golawski, A. Influence of temperature on the timing of spring arrival and duration of migration in Arctic goose species at a central European stopover site. Ornis Fenn. 95 (1), 32–40 (2018).
Polakowski, M. et al. Timing and duration of spring staging of the Eurasian Greater White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons albifrons) in relation to sex, age and progress of migration season. Ornis Fenn. 96, 24–32 (2019).
Polakowski, M., Broniszewska, M. & Kasprzykowski, Z. Differences in the time budget of the Greater White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons) in grasslands and arable fields at an important spring stopover site in central Europe. Eur. Zool. J. 88, 549–555 (2021).
Grygoruk, M., Mirosław-Świątek, D., Chrzanowska, W. & Ignar, S. How much for water? Economic assessment and mapping of floodplain water storage as a catchment-scale ecosystem service of wetlands. Water 5 (4), 1760–1779 (2013).
Southwood, T. R. E. & Henderson, P. A. Ecological methods. John Wiley & Sons (2009).
Black, J. M. & Owen, M. Agonistic behaviour in barnacle goose flocks: assessment, investment and reproductive success. Anim. Behav. 37, 199–209 (1989b).
Black, J. M. Fitness consequences of long-term pair bonds in barnacle geese: monogamy in the extreme. Behav. Ecol. 12, 640–645 (2001).
Nedelcu, J. & Hirschenhauser, K. Maintenance of the monogamous pair bond. In The Social Life of Greylag Geese: Patterns, Mechanisms and Evolutionary Function in an Avian Model System 65–87 (Cambridge University Press, 2013).
Dick, G. Feeding behaviour of the Greylag Goose (Anser anser): A field study. Ökologie der Vögel. 10, 59–69 (1988).
Szipl, G. et al. Parental behaviour and family proximity as key to gosling survival in Greylag Geese (Anser anser). J. Ornithol. 160 (2), 473–483 (2019).
van Wijk, R. E. et al. Individually tracked geese follow peaks of temperature acceleration during spring migration. Oikos 121, 655–664 (2012).
Frafjord, K. Vigilance in pre-nesting male geese: mate guarding or predator detention? Ornis Norvegica. 27, 48–58 (2004).
Rodway, M. S. Timing of Pairing in Waterfowl I: Reviewing the Data and Extending the Theory. Waterbirds 30, 488–505 (2007).
Hordowski, J. Nests and breeding of the birds of Poland. Dabbling ducks, geese, and swans Anatidae (BULiGL, 2018). [in Polish].
Kondratyev, A. & Zaynagutdinova, E. Greater White-fronted Geese Anser albifrons and Bean Geese A. fabalis on Kolguev Island – abundance, habitat distribution and breeding biology. Vogelwelt 129, 326–333 (2008).
Boyd, H. & Fox, A. D. Sexual activity of Pink-footed Geese Anser brachyrhynchus at a staging area in Iceland. Wildfowl 43, 117–120 (1992).
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to Łukasz Krajewski, Łukasz Matyjasiak, Witold Muchowski, Klaudia Polakowska, Andrzej Rumiński and Robert Wysocki for their help in the field studies. We thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable suggestions that helped improve an earlier version of this manuscript. The research was co-financed by the Polish Minister of Science under the “Regional Excellence Initiative” Program (Agreement No. RID/SP/0045/2024/01).
Funding
The research was co-financed by the Polish Minister of Science under the “Regional Excellence Initiative” Program. Agreement No. RID/SP/0045/2024/01.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Concept & design: M.P. and A.D.F. Data acquisition: M.P. Analysis & data interpretation: M.P., A.D.F. and Ł.J. Article drafting: A.D.F.,M.P. and Ł.J. Critical supervision and revision: M.P., Ł.J., A.D.F.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Ethical approval
The field studies comply with the current laws of Poland. Data were collected in public places and on private land where no special permit was required.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Polakowski, M., Jankowiak, Ł. & Fox, A.D. Intraspecific interactions in spring-staging geese reflect mate guarding and proximity to nesting dates. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-43082-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-43082-x
