Table 1 Big data application lexicon.

From: Big data application and firm markups: evidence from China

Dimension

Keywords

Partial source indicators

Conceptual Layer

Big data, massive data, data-driven, data asset, data element, data analysis

29,44

Foundational layer

Data center, data warehouse, data lake, data middle platform, cloud platform, computing center

44,45

Technical layer

Data mining, data visualization, hadoop, spark, machine learning, deep learning

6,44

Organizational layer

Data scientist, data analyst, data engineer, data architect, chief information officer, chief digital officer

3,27

Application layer

User profiling, intelligent recommendation, business intelligence, precision marketing, real-time personalization, intelligent customer service

38,44

  1. Hadoop and Spark are widely used distributed computing frameworks in the field of big data, designed for processing massive datasets.
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