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Unsegmented marine annelids as biomechanical models for soft robotics
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  • Published: 13 March 2026

Unsegmented marine annelids as biomechanical models for soft robotics

  • Linda Paternò1 na1,
  • Joachim Langeneck2 na1,
  • Kleoniki Keklikoglou3,
  • Ilaria Cedrola1,
  • Alessandra Martines2,4,
  • Mohammad Hasan Dad Ansari1,
  • Desirèe Dimichele2,4,
  • Emmanouela Vernadou3,
  • Jacopo Quaglierini1,
  • Antonio De Simone1 na2,
  • Luigi Musco2,4 na2 &
  • …
  • Arianna Menciassi1 na2 

Scientific Reports , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

Subjects

  • Biological techniques
  • Biophysics
  • Engineering
  • Materials science

Abstract

This work investigates marine worms as a source of bioinspiration for soft robotics, focusing on Phascolosoma stephensoni (Annelida), an unsegmented sipunculan species with a fully eversible introvert capable of remarkable elongations. High-resolution micro-computed tomography was used to resolve the internal musculoskeletal architecture across functional configurations. Morphometric analyses of live specimens revealed strong differentiation between body regions: trunk length remains nearly constant during motion (7.26 ± 3.40 mm retracted vs. 7.70 ± 3.47 mm extended), whereas total body length more than doubles (from 8.87 ± 4.30 mm to 18.75 ± 7.35 mm), driven by introvert eversion at the tip. Tensile tests further highlighted distinct mechanical properties, with the trunk sustaining substantially higher strains before failure (≈ 90–110%) compared to the introvert (≈ 60–65%). Peristaltic locomotion was investigated using a mathematical model reproducing wave-like propulsion in unsegmented bodies at characteristic speeds of 0.5–5 mm s⁻¹ in confined media and showing close agreement with experimental observations. As an exemplary translation of these mechanisms, a soft robotic architecture based on magneto-responsive silicone was developed enabling stimulus-driven protrusions up to 2.5 times the initial length. Overall, this study provides a biologically grounded framework for innovative soft robotic systems inspired by unsegmented worms.

Data availability

The codes and datasets generated in this study are available through the MAPWORMS Community on Zenodo (https://zenodo.org/communities/mapworms) or from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the European project MAPWORMS - Mimicking Adaptation and Plasticity in WORMS Grant Agreement 101046846 (www.mapworms.eu).Micro-CT scans were also supported by BIOIMAGING-GR (MIS 5002755) implemented under “Action for Strengthening Research and Innovation Infrastructures”, funded by the Operational Programme “Competitiveness, Entrepreneurship and Innovation” (NSRF 2014–2020), and co-financed by Greece and the European Union (European Regional Development Fund).

Funding

This work was supported by the European project MAPWORMS - Mimicking Adaptation and Plasticity in WORMS Grant Agreement 101046846 (www.mapworms.eu).

Author information

Author notes

  1. These authors contributed equally to this work: Linda Paternò and Joachim Langeneck.

  2. These authors contributed equally to this work: Luigi Musco, Arianna Menciassi and Antonio De Simone.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The BioRobotics Institute, and Department of Excellence in Robotics & AI, Sant’Anna School of Advanced Studies, Pisa, Italy

    Linda Paternò, Ilaria Cedrola, Mohammad Hasan Dad Ansari, Jacopo Quaglierini, Antonio De Simone & Arianna Menciassi

  2. National Interuniversity Consortium for Marine Sciences (CoNISMa), Rome, Italy

    Joachim Langeneck, Alessandra Martines, Desirèe Dimichele & Luigi Musco

  3. Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture (IMBBC), Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), Heraklion, Crete, Greece

    Kleoniki Keklikoglou & Emmanouela Vernadou

  4. Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies (DiSTeBA), University of Salento, Lecce, Italy

    Alessandra Martines, Desirèe Dimichele & Luigi Musco

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Contributions

J.L., A.Ma., D.D., and L.M. collected the specimens and performed the biometric and the protrusion kinematics analyses. K.K. and E.V. performed the micro-CT scans and the related measurements and analyses. J.Q. and A.D.S. developed the peristaltic locomotion model. L.P., I.C., M.H.D.A., and A.Me. designed and developed the worm-inspired robotic system. L.P., J.L., I.C., M.H.D.A., J.Q., A.D.S., L.M., and A.Me. designed and developed the experimental aquaria, carried out their mechanical characterization, performed the biomechanical analyses of the worm tissues, and validated the peristaltic locomotion model. A.D.S., L.M., and A.Me. conceived the initial idea for the study and supervised the overall work. L.P. wrote the initial and final versions of the manuscript, coordinated the integration of the various contributions and revisions, and led the practical activities related to the engineering aspects of the study, while J.L. coordinated the practical activities related to the biological aspects. All authors contributed to the discussion of the results and revised the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Arianna Menciassi.

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Paternò, L., Langeneck, J., Keklikoglou, K. et al. Unsegmented marine annelids as biomechanical models for soft robotics. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-44047-w

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  • Received: 19 January 2026

  • Accepted: 09 March 2026

  • Published: 13 March 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-44047-w

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Keywords

  • Bioinspired robotics
  • Marine worms
  • Soft robotics
  • Worm kinematics
  • Physical intelligence
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