Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

Advertisement

Scientific Reports
  • View all journals
  • Search
  • My Account Login
  • Content Explore content
  • About the journal
  • Publish with us
  • Sign up for alerts
  • RSS feed
  1. nature
  2. scientific reports
  3. articles
  4. article
Impact of hybrid ventilation strategies on mitigating aerosolized respiratory droplet dispersion in kitchen environments
Download PDF
Download PDF
  • Article
  • Open access
  • Published: 06 April 2026

Impact of hybrid ventilation strategies on mitigating aerosolized respiratory droplet dispersion in kitchen environments

  • Kamalesh Singararaj1,
  • Aeswin Lawrance1,
  • Saravanan Balaji1 &
  • …
  • Harish Rajan1 

Scientific Reports , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

Subjects

  • Engineering
  • Environmental sciences

Abstract

The rapid airborne spread of SARS-CoV-2 in food preparation environments highlights the importance of effective ventilation design in kitchens, where confined layouts and multiple emission sources may increase the risk of aerosol exposure. Motivated by this challenge, the present study investigates the dispersion behaviour of cough-generated aerosols and examines the potential influence of hybrid ventilation strategies combining inlet jets, chimney exhaust, and an air curtain. The objective is to investigate the influence of source placement, inlet velocity, and multi-source emissions on aerosol transport patterns within an enclosed kitchen environment. An Eulerian–Lagrangian computational framework was employed to simulate four source configurations together with a dual-source case under mechanically ventilated conditions. The results indicate that source positioning plays a significant role in determining aerosol transport behaviour. The predicted infection risk reached approximately 68% for the dual-source configuration but decreased to about 18% when the emission source was located near the chimney exhaust, and further reduced to approximately 7% with increased inlet velocity. Higher ventilation velocity promoted faster plume removal, with chimney-proximal sources exhibiting more than 97% reduction in mean aerosol velocity. In contrast, offset source configurations resulted in weaker entrainment and prolonged particle suspension. Smaller droplets (10 µm) were rapidly removed by the ventilation flow, whereas larger droplets (50 µm) exhibited temporary recirculation before evacuation. These findings provide insight into the relative influence of ventilation configuration and source placement on aerosol transport in kitchen environments. The results should be interpreted within the scope of the simplified modelling framework adopted in the study, but they offer useful guidance for improving ventilation design strategies aimed at reducing airborne exposure in high-occupancy kitchen settings.

Data availability

Data available on request from the authors.

References

  1. Delzendeh, E., Wu, S., Lee, A. & Zhou, Y. The impact of occupants’ behaviours on building energy analysis: A research review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 80, 1061–1071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.264 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Nie, Z., Chen, Y. & Deng, M. Quantitative evaluation of precautions against the COVID-19 indoor transmission through human coughing. Sci. Rep. 12, 22573. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-26837-0 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  3. Saad, M. A. et al. Assessing HVAC airflow modulation strategies to reduce short-term aerosol transmission in office environments. Sci. Rep. 15, 23911. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-08394-4 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  4. Ahmadzadeh, M. & Shams, M. A numerical approach for preventing the dispersion of infectious disease in a meeting room. Sci. Rep. 12, 16959. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-21161-z (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  5. Issakhov, A. et al. A numerical assessment of social distancing of preventing airborne transmission of COVID-19 during different breathing and coughing processes. Sci. Rep. 11, 9412. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-88645-2 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  6. Motamedi, H., Shirzadi, M., Tominaga, Y. & Mirzaei, P. A. CFD modeling of airborne pathogen transmission of COVID-19 in confined spaces under different ventilation strategies. Sustain. Cities Soc. 76, 103397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.103397 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  7. Bhattacharyya, S., Dey, K., Paul, A. R. & Biswas, R. A novel CFD analysis to minimize the spread of COVID-19 virus in hospital isolation room. Chaos Solitons Fractals 139, 110294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chaos.2020.110294 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  8. Liu, H., Zhan, L. & Lin, X. Optimization of suction and blowing double-layer air curtain ventilation system in residential kitchen with orthogonal analysis. J. Build. Eng. 107, 112664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2025.112664 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  9. Chen, S.-W., Chang, C.-Y. & Chan, Y.-C. Assessing the impact of kitchen hoods and ventilation openings on indoor air quality post-cooking. J. Build. Eng. 100, 111721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.111721 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  10. Wu, X., Cui, W., Wang, Y. & Xiang, W. Human thermal comfort in kitchen with different ventilation modes based on a coupled CFD and thermoregulation model. J. Build. Eng. 94, 110000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.110000 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  11. Liu, Y., Li, C., Ma, H. & Luo, X. Optimizing kitchen ventilation with an integrated stove air supply-exhaust system for reducing PM2.5 intake fraction and enhancing energy efficiency. Energy Buil.t Environ. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbenv.2024.10.003 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  12. Liu, Y., Li, C., Ma, H. & Luo, X. Performance of local supply-exhaust ventilation around stove with numerical simulation in a residential kitchen. J. Build. Eng. 87, 109078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.109078 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  13. Eom, Y. S., Kang, D. H., Rim, D. & Yeo, M. Particle dispersion and removal associated with kitchen range hood and whole house ventilation system. Build. Environ. 230, 109986. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.109986 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  14. Yang, Y. et al. Investigating the impact of stack effect on ventilation performance of residential kitchen exhaust shaft system. Energy Build. 296, 113364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113364 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  15. Giwa, S. O., Oladosu, J. O., Sulaiman, M. A., Taziwa, R. T. & Sharifpur, M. Influence of stove locations and ventilation conditions on kitchen air quality and thermal comfort during oil-cooking activities. Atmos. Pollut. Res. 14(10), 101882. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2023.101882 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  16. Yang, F. et al. Novel kitchen ventilation system with the cabinet-bottom air supply. J. Build. Eng. 60, 105137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105137 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Zhang, J. et al. The performance of different ventilation methods in residential kitchens with different spatial organizations: A literature review. Build. Environ. 201, 107990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.107990 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  18. Liu, S. et al. Improving indoor air quality and thermal comfort in residential kitchens with a new ventilation system. Build. Environ. 180, 107016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107016 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  19. Xin, J. et al. Numerical evaluation of the air quality and thermal comfort in the cooking kitchen under exhausting effects of the range hood. Energy Build. 309, 114058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114058 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  20. Gonçalves, J. C., Costa, J. J. & Lopes, A. M. G. Parametric study on the performance of an air curtain based on CFD simulations—New proposal for automatic operation. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 193, 103951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2019.103951 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  21. Liu, Y., Qiu, K., Shao, X., Shi, P. & Liu, Y. Effect of a recirculated air curtain with incomplete coverage of room width on the protection zone in ventilated room. Build. Environ. 219, 109219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109219 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  22. Ma, J., Qian, H. & Liu, F. Performance analysis of a novel personalized air curtain for preventing inhalation of particulate matters in industrial environments. J. Build. Eng. 58, 105014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105014 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  23. Xu, J., Wang, C. & Guo, H. Effect of personalized air curtain combined with mixing ventilation on dispersion of aerosols released at different velocities from respiratory activities during close contact. J. Build. Eng. 27, 109016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.109016 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  24. Chen, M. & Hao, S. Numerical study on the cutting off performance of a novel personalized air curtain in a general consulting ward. Dev. Built Environ. 16, 100239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2023.100239 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  25. Ma, J. et al. Personalized air curtain optimized to reduce fine particle exposure in industrial environments with different indoor airflow conditions. Build. Environ. 265, 112020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2024.112020 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  26. Kumar, S. & King, M. D. Numerical investigation on indoor environment decontamination after sneezing. Environ. Res. 213, 113665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113665 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  27. Al-Rawi, M., Al-Jumaily, A. M. & Lazonby, A. Did you just cough? Visualization of vapor diffusion in an office using computational fluid dynamics analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 19, 9928. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19169928 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Sedighi, A. A., Haghighat, F., Nasiri, F., Cao, S. & Ren, C. Approaches in CFD modeling of respiratory droplet dispersion—issues and challenges. Sustain. Cities Soc. 97, 104696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2023.104696 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  29. Firatoglu, Z. A. The effect of natural ventilation on airborne transmission of the COVID-19 virus spread by sneezing in the classroom. Sci. Total Environ. 896, 165113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165113 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  30. Rahvard, A. J., Karami, S. & Lakzian, E. Finding the proper position of supply and return registers of air condition system in a conference hall in term of COVID-19 virus spread. Int. J. Refrig. 145, 78–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2022.10.010 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  31. Dao, H. T. & Kim, K. S. Behavior of cough droplets emitted from COVID-19 patient in hospital isolation room with different ventilation configurations. Build. Environ. 209, 108649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108649 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  32. Mirzaie, M. et al. COVID-19 spread in a classroom equipped with partition – A CFD approach. J. Hazard. Mater. 420, 126587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126587 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  33. Ahmadzadeh, M., Farokhi, E. & Shams, M. Investigating the effect of air conditioning on the distribution and transmission of COVID-19 virus particles. J. Clean. Prod. 316, 128147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128147 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  34. Shum, C., Alipouri, Y. & Zhong, L. Examination of human interaction on indoor environmental quality variables: A case study of libraries at the University of Alberta. Build. Environ. 207, 108476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108476 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  35. Nazari, A., Jafari, M., Rezaei, N. & Taghizadeh-Hesary, F. Jet fans in the underground car parking areas and virus transmission. Phys. Fluids 33, 013603. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0033557 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  36. Ahmadzadeh, M. & Shams, M. Passenger exposure to respiratory aerosols in a train cabin: Effects of window, injection source, output flow location. Sustain. Cities Soc. 75, 103280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.103280 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  37. Talaat, K., Abuhegazy, M., Mahfoze, O. A., Anderoglu, O. & Poroseva, S. V. Simulation of aerosol transmission on a Boeing 737 airplane with intervention measures for COVID-19 mitigation. Phys. Fluids 33, 033312. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0044720 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  38. Li, X., Shang, Y., Yan, Y., Yang, L. & Tu, J. Modelling of evaporation of cough droplets in inhomogeneous humidity fields using the multi-component Eulerian-Lagrangian approach. Build. Environ. 128, 68–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.11.025 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  39. Redrow, J., Mao, S., Celik, I., Posada, J. A. & Feng, Z. Modeling the evaporation and dispersion of airborne sputum droplets expelled from a human cough. Build. Environ. 46, 2042–2051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.04.011 (2011).

    Google Scholar 

  40. Zhu, S. W., Kato, S. & Yang, J. H. Study on transport characteristics of saliva droplets produced by coughing in a calm indoor environment. Build. Environ. 41, 1691–1702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.06.024 (2006).

    Google Scholar 

  41. Gupta, J. K., Lin, C. H. & Chen, Q. Flow dynamics and characterization of a cough. Indoor Air 19, 517–525. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2009.00619.x (2009).

    Google Scholar 

  42. Li, K. et al. Risk assessment of respiratory droplet infections caused by coughing in various indoor dynamic environments. J. Build. Eng. 80, 108116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.108116 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  43. Li, K. et al. Risk assessment of cough airdroplets in static and dynamic indoor environments with different ventilation strategies. Build. Environ. 266, 112139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2024.112139 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  44. Yan, W. & Gao, N. The dynamics of body motion–induced wake flow and its effects on contaminant dispersion. Build. Environ. 82, 63–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2014.08.003 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  45. Dbouk, T. & Drikakis, D. On coughing and airborne droplet transmission to humans. Phys. Fluids 32, 053310. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0011960 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  46. Zabihi, M., Li, R. & Brinkerhoff, J. Influence of indoor airflow on airborne disease transmission in a classroom. Build. Simul. 17, 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273-023-1097-y (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  47. Zabihi, M., Brinkerhoff, J. & Li, R. On Euler-Lagrange URANS turbulence models for predicting the transient dispersion of aerosols indoors. Build. Environ. 271, 112601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2025.112601 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  48. Zabihi, M., Li, R. & Brinkerhoff, J. A novel aerosol induction–removal system for mitigating airborne disease transmission in shared indoor environments. Build. Environ. 286, 113569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2025.113569 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  49. Chung, K. & Hsu, S. Effect of ventilation pattern on room air and contaminant distribution. Build. Environ. 36, 989–998. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1323(00)00051-2 (2001).

    Google Scholar 

  50. Liu, H., Liu, Z., Wang, Y., Hu, C. & Rong, R. Distribution of droplets/droplet nuclei from coughing and breathing of patients with different postures in a hospital isolation ward. Build. Environ. 225, 109690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109690 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

Open access funding provided by Vellore Institute of Technology. There are no funding sources associated with this work.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, 600127, India

    Kamalesh Singararaj, Aeswin Lawrance, Saravanan Balaji & Harish Rajan

Authors
  1. Kamalesh Singararaj
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Aeswin Lawrance
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Saravanan Balaji
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Harish Rajan
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

K.S., A.L., and S.B. jointly carried out the computational simulations, contributed data analysis, result interpretation, and manuscript drafting. H.R. conceived and supervised the study, provided validation of the findings, and revised the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Harish Rajan.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Singararaj, K., Lawrance, A., Balaji, S. et al. Impact of hybrid ventilation strategies on mitigating aerosolized respiratory droplet dispersion in kitchen environments. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-45120-0

Download citation

  • Received: 16 September 2025

  • Accepted: 17 March 2026

  • Published: 06 April 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-45120-0

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Keywords

  • Aerosol dispersion
  • Occupational exposure
  • Hybrid ventilation systems
  • Cough-generated aerosols
  • Indoor air quality
Download PDF

Advertisement

Explore content

  • Research articles
  • News & Comment
  • Collections
  • Subjects
  • Follow us on Facebook
  • Follow us on X
  • Sign up for alerts
  • RSS feed

About the journal

  • About Scientific Reports
  • Contact
  • Journal policies
  • Guide to referees
  • Calls for Papers
  • Editor's Choice
  • Journal highlights
  • Open Access Fees and Funding

Publish with us

  • For authors
  • Language editing services
  • Open access funding
  • Submit manuscript

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

  • Explore articles by subject
  • Find a job
  • Guide to authors
  • Editorial policies

Scientific Reports (Sci Rep)

ISSN 2045-2322 (online)

nature.com footer links

About Nature Portfolio

  • About us
  • Press releases
  • Press office
  • Contact us

Discover content

  • Journals A-Z
  • Articles by subject
  • protocols.io
  • Nature Index

Publishing policies

  • Nature portfolio policies
  • Open access

Author & Researcher services

  • Reprints & permissions
  • Research data
  • Language editing
  • Scientific editing
  • Nature Masterclasses
  • Research Solutions

Libraries & institutions

  • Librarian service & tools
  • Librarian portal
  • Open research
  • Recommend to library

Advertising & partnerships

  • Advertising
  • Partnerships & Services
  • Media kits
  • Branded content

Professional development

  • Nature Awards
  • Nature Careers
  • Nature Conferences

Regional websites

  • Nature Africa
  • Nature China
  • Nature India
  • Nature Japan
  • Nature Middle East
  • Privacy Policy
  • Use of cookies
  • Legal notice
  • Accessibility statement
  • Terms & Conditions
  • Your US state privacy rights
Springer Nature

© 2026 Springer Nature Limited

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing