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Cortical firing dynamics during micro-arousals vary with sleep/wake history and micro-arousal duration
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  • Published: 01 April 2026

Cortical firing dynamics during micro-arousals vary with sleep/wake history and micro-arousal duration

  • Natalie L. Hauglund1,2,3,4,
  • Lukas B. Krone1,5,6,
  • Martin Kahn7,
  • Cristina Blanco-Duque1,7 &
  • …
  • Vladyslav V. Vyazovskiy1,3,4 

Scientific Reports , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

Subjects

  • Circadian rhythms and sleep
  • Neuroscience

Abstract

Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep is not uniform but characterized by brief intrusions of wake-like brain activity and increased muscle tonus known as micro-arousals or brief awakenings. Although micro-arousals are an inherent feature of human and animal sleep, knowledge about the neural correlates of micro-arousals is sparse. We here developed an algorithm for automatic detection of micro-arousals based on EMG activity and used it to analyse the associated laminar neural activity in the motor cortex in mice. Our analysis showed that short micro-arousals with a duration below 5 s were associated with decreased cortical firing, while longer micro-arousals with a duration of 5–10 s were associated with increased firing in a similar manner to transitions to wakefulness. Analysis of single-channel firing showed that some channels exhibited increased activity immediately prior to micro-arousals, while others exhibited decreased activity. Slow wave activity (SWA, 1–4 Hz) immediately after micro-arousals was tightly correlated with sleep pressure and even surpassed average SWA levels during NREM sleep in sleep deprived animals. This study provides new insights into the neural mechanisms associated with micro-arousals and identifies a new link between sleep architecture and sleep homeostasis.

Data availability

The micro-arousal detection algorithm code is available on GitHub: [https://github.com/NHauglund/automatic-micro-arousal-detection/](https:/github.com/NHauglund/automatic-micro-arousal-detection) . The datasets analysed in the current study is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by Novo Nordisk Foundation grant NNF23OC0082427 (N.L.H.), the Wellcome Trust PhD studentships 203971/Z/16/Z (L.B.K.) and 109059/Z/15/Z (C.B.-D.), a Berrow Foundation Lord Florey Scholarship (M.C.K.), Wellcome Trust Strategic Award 098461/Z/12/Z (V.V.V.), Wellcome Trust Award 227093/Z/23/Z (V.V.V.), John Fell OUP Research Fund grant 131/032 (V.V.V.), Medical Research Council (UK) grants MR/N026039/1 and MR/S01134X/1 (V.V.V.) and BBSRC grant BB/X008711/1 (V.V.V.).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3PT, UK

    Natalie L. Hauglund, Lukas B. Krone, Cristina Blanco-Duque & Vladyslav V. Vyazovskiy

  2. Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Danish Center for Sleep Medicine, 2600, Rigshospitalet, Glostrup, Denmark

    Natalie L. Hauglund

  3. Sleep and Circadian Neuroscience Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK

    Natalie L. Hauglund & Vladyslav V. Vyazovskiy

  4. Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Discovery, University of Oxford, Sherrington Rd, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK

    Natalie L. Hauglund & Vladyslav V. Vyazovskiy

  5. Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3SR, UK

    Lukas B. Krone

  6. University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

    Lukas B. Krone

  7. Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA

    Martin Kahn & Cristina Blanco-Duque

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Contributions

L.B.K., M.C.K., C.B.-D. conducted the experiments, N.L.H. performed the analysis, data visualization and writing the manuscript, V.V.V edited the manuscript and supervised experiments.

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Correspondence to Natalie L. Hauglund or Vladyslav V. Vyazovskiy.

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Hauglund, N.L., Krone, L.B., Kahn, M. et al. Cortical firing dynamics during micro-arousals vary with sleep/wake history and micro-arousal duration. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-45192-y

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  • Received: 16 May 2025

  • Accepted: 17 March 2026

  • Published: 01 April 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-45192-y

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