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Acid activated orange peel waste adsorbent for the elimination of phenol with insights into isotherm, kinetics, and thermodynamics
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  • Published: 02 April 2026

Acid activated orange peel waste adsorbent for the elimination of phenol with insights into isotherm, kinetics, and thermodynamics

  • Zahrah Alqahtani1,
  • Oladejo Emmanuel Kola2,
  • Aliyah Alsharif3,
  • Ali Shawabkeh4,
  • Afnan M. Alnajeebi5,
  • Roaa A. Tayeb6,
  • A. Al Solami6,
  • Hamad AlMohamadi7 &
  • …
  • Jamelah S. Al-Otaibi8 

Scientific Reports , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

Abstract

This study explored the potential of acid-treated orange peel (ATOP) and raw orange peel (ROP) as sustainable, low-cost biosorbents for the elimination of phenol from aqueous solutions. Acid modification was employed to enhance the textural and surface chemistry properties of orange peel–derived biomass. Comprehensive characterization using FTIR, SEM, BET, and XRD confirmed successful surface functionalization, improved porosity, and structural modification after adsorption. The findings showed that ATOP demonstrated superior performance relative to ROP, achieving a maximum removal efficiency of 85.25% at 45 °C and reaching equilibrium within 150 min. The maximum adsorption capacities obtained from the Langmuir model were 80.32 mg g−1 for ROP and 133.13 mg g−1 for ATOP. Equilibrium data indicated Langmuir behavior for ROP and Freundlich behavior for ATOP, reflecting increased surface heterogeneity induced by activation. Kinetic assessment showed that phenol removal on ROP followed the pseudo-first-order model, while ATOP was best explained by the pseudo-second-order model, signifying a shift toward stronger surface interactions after acid modification. Thermodynamic parameters established the process to be spontaneous and endothermic, with ΔH° values of 14.5 kJ mol−1 (ROP) and 45.32 kJ mol−1 (ATOP). Overall, the results demonstrate that acid-treated orange peel biomass is an efficient and environmentally benign adsorbent for phenol remediation in wastewater systems.

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Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2026R13), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Funding

This work was funded by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2026R13), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Physics Department, Faculty of Science, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, 21944, Taif, Saudi Arabia

    Zahrah Alqahtani

  2. Department of Chemical Sciences, Mountain Top University, Ogun State, Prayer City, Nigeria

    Oladejo Emmanuel Kola

  3. Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSU), 11564, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

    Aliyah Alsharif

  4. College of Engineering and Technology, American University of the Middle East, Egaila, 54200, Kuwait

    Ali Shawabkeh

  5. Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

    Afnan M. Alnajeebi

  6. Department of Chemistry, College of Science, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

    Roaa A. Tayeb & A. Al Solami

  7. Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Islamic University of Madinah, Madinah, Saudi Arabia

    Hamad AlMohamadi

  8. Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428, 11671, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

    Jamelah S. Al-Otaibi

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Contributions

Zahrah Alqahtani carried out the characterizations and statistical analysis, Oladejo Emmanuel Kola conceived the work, and performed the experiments, Aliyah Alsharif read the first draft and performed statistical analysis, Ali Shawabkeh and Afnan M. Alnajeebi provide resources, and performed data analysis, Roaa A. Tayeb performed statistical analysis and contributed resources, Amani Fahm Mohammed Al Solami and Hamad AlMohamadi performed data analysis, contributed in characterization, and contributed resources, Jamelah S. Al-Otaibi contributed financial assistance, performed statistical analysis, and resources.

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Correspondence to Oladejo Emmanuel Kola.

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Alqahtani, Z., Kola, O.E., Alsharif, A. et al. Acid activated orange peel waste adsorbent for the elimination of phenol with insights into isotherm, kinetics, and thermodynamics. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-46890-3

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  • Received: 26 December 2025

  • Accepted: 27 March 2026

  • Published: 02 April 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-46890-3

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Keywords

  • Adsorption
  • Isotherm
  • Kinetics
  • Orange peel
  • Phenol
  • Wastewater
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