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Enhancing electrochromic energy storage devices with water-in-bisalt (Zn2+/Al3+) electrolytes for energy saving smart glass applications
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  • Published: 10 April 2026

Enhancing electrochromic energy storage devices with water-in-bisalt (Zn2+/Al3+) electrolytes for energy saving smart glass applications

  • Ming-Yue Tan1,
  • Gregory Soon How Thien2,
  • Kar Ban Tan3,
  • Ab Rahman Marlinda4,
  • Mohd Sufri Mastuli5,
  • H. C. Ananda Murthy6,
  • B S Surendra7,
  • Yun Ii Go8 &
  • …
  • Kah-Yoong Chan  ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1076-50341,2 

Scientific Reports , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

Subjects

  • Chemistry
  • Energy science and technology
  • Materials science

Abstract

Electrochromic (EC) technology is increasingly recognized for its potential to improve energy efficiency, particularly through smart windows that modulate transparency to reduce reliance on artificial lighting and air conditioning. While EC devices generally require low external voltages to switch between colored and bleached states, further advancements are still needed to reduce energy consumption and achieve more efficient, sustainable performance. A promising solution lies in integrating EC materials with energy storage systems, offering a dual-purpose approach that enables light modulation and energy storage functionality. Numerous studies have explored zinc (Zn)-based EC energy storage devices, owing to their high theoretical specific capacity, environmental compatibility, and the abundance of zinc metal. However, the performance of Zn2+-based electrolytes is often constrained by large hydrated ion sizes and a limited electrochemical stability window. To address these limitations, this study focused on investigating water-in-bisalt (WiBS) electrolytes with varying Zn2+/Al3+ electrolyte composition to enhance both energy storage capability and EC functionality. Additionally, tungsten trioxide (WO3) was selected as the EC material due to its proven coloration efficiency, optical modulation, and cyclic stability. Deduced from the measurement, the 10 M Zn + 3 M Al electrolyte was identified as the optimal formulation, enabling the WO3 energy storage device to achieve an outstanding energy storage capacity of 146 mAh/m2, excellent optical contrast (80.5%), high coloration efficiency (35.3 cm2/C), and excellent cyclic stability of 75% after 1000 cycles. This research highlights the potential of advanced WiBS electrolytes in EC energy storage technologies, paving the way for applications in energy storage integrated smart windows and real-time energy indicators.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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Funding

This work was funded by the Telekom Malaysia Research and Development (TM R&D) under TM R&D Research Fund (Grant No: RDTC/261168, Project ID: MMUE/260004).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Artificial Intelligence and Engineering, Multimedia University, Persiaran Multimedia, Cyberjaya, 63000, Selangor, Malaysia

    Ming-Yue Tan & Kah-Yoong Chan

  2. Centre for Advanced Devices and Systems, COE for Robotics and Sensing Technologies, Multimedia University, Persiaran Multimedia, Cyberjaya, 63100, Selangor, Malaysia

    Gregory Soon How Thien & Kah-Yoong Chan

  3. Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia

    Kar Ban Tan

  4. Nanotechnology and Catalysis Research Centre (NANOCAT), Institute for Advanced Studies, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia

    Ab Rahman Marlinda

  5. Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, 40450, Selangor, Malaysia

    Mohd Sufri Mastuli

  6. Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, Papua New Guinea University of Technology, Lae, 411, Morobe, Papua New Guinea

    H. C. Ananda Murthy

  7. Department of Chemistry, Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering, Bengaluru, 560078, India

    B S Surendra

  8. School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University Malaysia, 1, Jalan Venna P5/2, Precinct 5, Putrajaya, 62200, Malaysia

    Yun Ii Go

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  2. Gregory Soon How Thien
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Contributions

Ming-Yue Tan (Conceptualization, Experimental, Data Curation, Investigation, Data Analysis, Original manuscript writing, Manuscript Revision and Review), Gregory Soon How Thien (Experimental, Dat Curation, Visualization), Kar Ban Tan (Characterization System Support, Manuscript Revision and Review, Validation), Ab Rahman Marlinda (Characterization System Support, Manuscript Revision and Review, Validation), Mohd Sufri Mastuli (Characterization System Support, Manuscript Revision and Review, Validation), H.C. Ananda Murthy (Manuscript Revision and Review, Visualization, Validation), B S Surendra (Manuscript Revision and Review, Visualization, Validation), Yun Ii Go (Manuscript Revision and Review, Visualization, Validation), Kah-Yoong Chan (Conceptualization, Investigation, Data Analysis, Manuscript Revision and Review, Visualization, Validation, Funding, Project Management, Supervision).

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Correspondence to Kah-Yoong Chan.

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Tan, MY., Thien, G.S.H., Tan, K.B. et al. Enhancing electrochromic energy storage devices with water-in-bisalt (Zn2+/Al3+) electrolytes for energy saving smart glass applications. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-47561-z

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  • Received: 30 July 2025

  • Accepted: 01 April 2026

  • Published: 10 April 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-47561-z

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