Fig. 3: Transient SOA potential in different speed and acceleration bins.

a–c The SOA concentrations in the reactor, (d–f) SOA productions, (g–i) SOA-to-THC ratios, and (j–l) SOA-to-CO ratios measured from vehicle exhaust with China IV, China V, and China VI emission standards under different driving conditions. The speed (km h−1) is divided into [0, 10), [10, 20), [20, 30), [30, 40), [40, 50), [60, 70), [70, 80), [80, 90), [90, 100), [100, 110), and [110, 120) bins. The acceleration (m s−2) is divided into [<−1.5), [−1.5, −1), [−1, −0.5), [−0.5, 0), [0, 0.5), [0.5, 1), [1, 1.5), and [>1.5) bins.