Fig. 3: Observation-constrained simulations effectively mitigate overestimation of absorbing optical depth in the default model scheme.

a–c Temporal evolution of AAOD simulated in two experiments: New-avg (solid lines) and Default (dashed lines), compared with AERONET observations at SACOL (blue dots), Beijing (magenta dots), and Dalanzadgad (yellow dots). upper/lower horizontal dashes in corresponding colors denote mean values from New-p90 and New-p10 experiments. d–f Spatial distribution of AAOD and its difference between the two experiments.