Fig. 2: Vertical profiles of geostrophic wind speed, ageostrophic wind speed, and the intensity ratio of ageostrophic wind speed over geostrophic wind speed.

The figure presents vertical profiles averaged over the extratropical regions (latitude ≥ 20°) for HRES (grayish lime green lines), Pangu-Weather (blue lines), Dinosaur (gray lines), NeuralGCM 2.8 (light orange lines), NeuralGCM 1.4 (orange lines), SMgNO (purple lines), HMgNO (red lines), and ERA5 (black lines). Values averaged over all forecasts initialized in 2018. The first row is geostrophic wind speed, the second row is ageostrophic wind speed, and the third row is the intensity ratio of ageostrophic wind speed over geostrophic wind speed. The four columns respectively show the results for 1 day, 3 days, 5 days, and 7 days forecast lead times.