Table 1 This table summarizes the content of all the publications analyzed in the review.

From: Blood pressure measurement using only a smartphone

Publication

  

Subjects

   

Data acquisition

    

Algorithm

   

Evaluation

 

Author (year)

Number of participants (F:M)

BP status

Comorbidities

Age (years) and ethnicity

Sensor (light from anatomical site)

Device (frame rate)

Site

Recording: repetitions × time [s]

Distance [cm]

Environment

Feature types used (number of features)

Demographic information included in model

Calibration

Reference measurement

Bland-Altman, MAE ± SD (mmHg)

Correlation (Pearson r or Spearman ρ)

Accuracy (%) (MAPD or classification accuracy)

Contact

                 

Degott et al.9 (2021)

91 (49:42)

NTN/HTN/HoTN

Yes

52.9 ± 15.9 N/R

PPG (green) from finger

Samsung Galaxy S7 (N/R)

Finger

N/R

–

N/R

N/R

N/R

Yes

Sphygmomanometer (A) (A&D UM-101)

SBP = 0.5 ± 7.7 DBP = 0.4 ± 4.6 (ME)

N/R

N/R

Yamakoshi et al.10 (2021)

13 (7:6)

NTN/HTN

No

19–73 Japanese

PPG (green) from finger

Different models (60 fps)

Finger

20 × 15

–

Indoors (subject’s home)

Normalized pulse volume, pulse rate (2)

No

Yes

Sphygmomanometer (N/R) (DSK-1051, NISSEI)

SBP = 3.50 ± 2.35 DBP = 4.40 ± 3.09 (MAE)

r(SBP) = 0.968 r(DBP) = 0.844

N/R

Dörr et al.11 (2020)

965 (477:488)

NTN/HTN

Yes

51.0 ± 18.9 N/R

PPG (green) from finger

iPhone 4s (30 fps)

Finger

3 × 120

–

Indoors

Time-domain, frequency-domain (N/R)

Yes

No

Sphygmomanometer (O) (Omron-HBP-1300)

SBP = −0.41 ± 16.52 DBP = N/R (ME)

ρ(SBP) = 0.426 ρ(DBP) = N/R

N/R

Schoettker et al.12 (2020)

51 (25:26)

NTN/HTN/HoTN

No

53.9 ± 17.5 N/R

PPG (green) from finger

Samsung Galaxy S7 (30 fps)

Finger

10 × 60 (training) 7 × 120(validation)

–

N/R

Derivative-based (N/R)

Yes

Yes

Sphygmomanometer (A) (A&D UM-101)

SBP = −0.7 ± 7.7 DBP = −0.4 ± 4.5 (ME)

N/R

N/R

Baek et al.13 (2020)

26 (N/R)

N/R

N/R

N/R N/R

PPG (green) from finger

Samsung Galaxy Note 8 (100 fps)

Finger

23 × 90

–

N/R

Time-domain, frequency-domain, entropy-based (N/R)

No

No

N/R

SBP = 5.28 ± 1.80 DBP = 4.92 ± 2.42 (MAE)

N/R

N/R

Devaki et al.14 (2020)

140 (N/R)

NTN/HTN

N/R

N/R N/R

PPG (red) from finger

Letv le max 2 le ×821 (30 fps)

Finger

1 × 30

–

N/R

Time-domain (15)

No

No

N/R

N/R

N/R

N/R

Nemcova et al.15 (2020)

22 (13:9)

N/R

N/R

N/R N/R

PPG (red) from finger and PCG from chest

Samsung Galaxy S7 (30 fps)

Finger and chest

N/R

–

N/R

PTT

Yes

Yes

Sphygmomanometer (A)

SBP = 5.13 ± N/R DBP = 7.53 ± N/R (MAE)

r(SBP) = 0.896 r(DBP) = N/R

N/R

Dey et al.16 (2018)

205 (115:90)

N/R

N/R

39.8 ± 14.8 Diverse

PPG (IR) from finger

Samsung Galaxy S6 (N/R)

Finger

1 × 900

–

N/R

Time-domain, derivative-based, frequency-domain (233)

Yes

No

Sphygmomanometer (A)

SBP = 6.9 ± 9.0 DBP = 5.0 ± 6.1 (MAE)

N/R

N/R

Matsumura et al.17 (2018)

13 (6:7)

NTN/HTN

No

20–24 Japanese

PPG (green) from finger

iPhone 6s (60 fps)

Finger

4 × 45

–

Conference room (4 × 5 m)

Heart-rate, normalized pulse volume(2)

No

No

Sphygmomanometer (N/R) (DS-S10, NISSEI)

SBP = 0.67 ± 12.7 DBP = 0.45 ± 8.6 (ME)

r(SBP) = 0.685 r(DBP) = 0.685

N/R

Wang et al.18 (2018)

7 (N/R)

N/R

N/R

44 ± 17 N/R

PPG (N/R) from finger and SCG from chest

Google Pixel phone (30 fps)

Finger and chest

7 × 30

–

Office room

PTT

No

Yes

Sphygmomanometer (O) (Microlife bp3na1−1x)

SBP = N/R DBP = 5.2 ± 2.0 (RMSE)

r(SBP) = N/R r(DBP) = 0.55

N/R

Raichle et al.19 (2018)

32 (32:0)

NTN/HTN

Yes

31.6 ± 5.1 N/R

PPG (green) from finger

iPhone 4s (30 fps)

Finger

3 × 120

–

N/R

Time-domain, frequency-domain (N/R)

Yes

No

Sphygmomanometer (O) (OMRON HBP1300)

SBP = 5.0 ± 14.50 DBP = N/R (ME)

ρ(SBP) = 0.401 ρ(DBP) = N/R

N/R

Datta et al.20 (2017)

50 (N/R)

N/R

N/R

45 ± 17 N/R

PPG (red) from finger

Nexus 5 (24 fps)

Finger

1 × 60

–

N/R

Time-domain (N/R)

Yes

No

Sphygmomanometer (O) (Omron)

SBP = 3 ± N/R DBP = −1 ± N/R (ME)

 

MAPDs = 7.4 MAPDd = 9.1

Gao et al.21 (2016)

65 (25:40)

NTN

No

29 ± 7 N/R

PPG (green) from finger

Android phone (20 fps)

Finger

1 × 60

–

N/R

Time-domain, frequency-domain (N/R)

Yes

No

Sphygmomanometer (O) (A&D UA-767PBT)

SBP = 5.1 ± 4.3 DBP = 4.6 ± 4.3 (ME)

N/R

N/R

Gaurav et al.22 (2016)

3000 (N/R)

N/R

N/R

N/R N/R

PPG (red) from finger (databsase)

Samsung Galaxy Note 5 (100 fps)

N/R

N/R

–

N/R

Time-domain, derivative-based, heart rate variability-based (46)

No

No

From database

SBP = 4.47 ± 6.85 DBP = 3.21 ± 4.72 (MAE)

N/R

N/R

Plante et al.23 (2016)

85 (44:41)

NTN/HTN

N/R

56.6 ± 16.3 N/R

N/R

iPhone 5s and iPhone 6 (N/R)

Finger and chest

N/R

–

N/R

N/R

Yes

No

Sphygmomanometer (O) (Omron 907 and 907 XL)

SBP = 12.4 ± 10.5 DBP = 10.1 ± 8.1 (MAE)

ρ(SBP) = 0.44 ρ(DBP) = 0.41

N/R

Junior et al.24 (2016)

3 (1:2)

N/R

N/R

N/R N/R

PPG (red) from finger and PCG from chest

Samsung S4 (N/R)

Finger

N/R

–

N/R

PTT

No

Yes

N/R

N/R

N/R

N/R

Junior et al.25 (2015)

3 (1:2)

N/R

N/R

N/R N/R

PPG (red) from finger and PCG from chest

Samsung S4 (N/R)

Finger

N/R

–

N/R

PTT

No

Yes

N/R

N/R

N/R

N/R

Peng et al.26 (2015)

32 (7:25)

N/R

No

20–32 N/R

PCG from chest

Smartphone

Chest

13 × 60

–

N/R

Frequency-domain (36)

No

No

Finger BP cuff (Finometer MIDI, Model II)

SBP = 4.339 ± 6.121 DBP = 3.171 ± 4.471 (MAE)

r(SBP) = 0.707 r(DBP) = 0.712

N/R

Banerjee et al.27 (2015)

15 (N/R)

NTN/HTN

No

N/R N/R

PPG (Y from YCbCr) from finger

Nexus 5 (android) N/R

Finger

1 × 45

–

N/R

Time-domain, modeled signal (N/R)

No

No

Sphygmomanometer (O) (Omron)

N/R (i.e. given individually)

N/R

N/R

Visvanathan et al.28 (2014)

156 (N/R)

NTN/HTN/HoTN

N/R

21-42 N/R

PPG (red) from finger

iPhone 4 (30 fps)

Finger

1 × 23

–

N/R

Time-domain, frequency-domain(19)

Yes

No

Sphygmomanometer (N/R) (ETCOMM HC-502)

N/R

N/R

Accs = 98.12 Accd = 97.22 (classification)

Lamonaca et al.29 (2013)

5 (N/R)

N/R

N/R

N/R N/R

PPG (red) from finger

HTC Desire S (30 fps)

Finger

N/R

–

N/R

Time-domain (15)

No

No

Sphygmomanometer (O) (ABP SPACELABS 90207)

N/R

N/R

N/R

Visvanathan et al.30 (2013)

17 (N/R)

N/R

N/R

N/R N/R

PPG (red) from finger

iPhone 4 (N/R)

Finger

N/R

–

N/R

Time-domain (14)

Yes

No

Sphygmomanometer (N/R) (ETCOMM HC-502)

N/R

N/R

Accs = 98.7/100 Accd = 99.7/99.29 (Regression/SVM)

Li et al.31 (2013)

5 (N/R)

N/R

N/R

27 ± 6 N/R

PPG (green) from finger

Samsung Galaxy S4 i9500 (20 fps)

Finger

N/R

–

N/R

PWTT

No

Yes

Sphygmomanometer (O)

N/R

N/R

N/R

non-contact

                 

Patil et al.32 (2019)

4 (N/R)

NTN

No

N/R N/R

PPG from facial video

Different smartphones (30 fps)

Face

10 × 10

40–60

Office room

PTT

No

N/R

Sphygmomanometer (O) (Omron)

N/R

r(SBP) = 0.64−0.94 r(DBP) = N/R

 

Luo et al.33 (2019)

1328 (540:788)

NTN

Yes

46 ± 17 Diverse

TOI from facial video

iPhone 6+ front camera (30 fps)

Face

1 × 120

40–60

Study room, face illuminated

Time-domain (155)

Yes

No

Finger cuff (CNAP Monitor 500)

SBP = 0.39 ± 7.30 DBP = 0.20 ± 6.00 (ME)

r(SBP) = 0.67 r(DBP) = 0.47

Accs = 94.81 Accd = 95.71

  1. F:M female:male, N/R not reported, NTN normotensive, HTN hypertensive, HoTN hypotensive, PPG photoplethysmography, PCG phonocardiogram, IR infrared, TOI transdermal optical imaging, PTT pulse transit time, PWTT pulse wave transit time, BP blood pressure, A auscultatory, O oscillometric, SBP systolic blood pressure, DBP diastolic blood pressure, MAE mean absolute error, ME mean error, SD standard deviation, RMSE root-mean-square error, MAPD mean absolute percentage deviation, Accs percent systolic accuracy, Accd percent diastolic accuracy.
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