Table 2 Content, Modality, Interface, Locomotion Method, Instructors, and Side Effects of Virtual Walking Interventions
From: A scoping review on the role of virtual walking intervention in enhancing wellness
Author; Year | Treatment content | Control types | Virtual modality; Dosage (Duration, Frequency, Total time) | Interface | Virtual locomotion method | Virtual walking only or not | Instructor | Side effect |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Eick et al.20 | Observation of an actor walking from a 1st-person view; imagined walking without actual limb movement | Active control: Able-body participants experience the treatment content | Virtual illusion; 8 min in total, repeated 4 times of stimuli | Projection screen | Passive observing moving | Yes | NR | NR |
Mollà-Casanova et al.1 | Simultaneous observation of the illusion of walking legs overlay of patient’s own upper body supported by a standing frame | Active control: Viewing videos of landscape without any type of human movement projected | Virtual illusion; 10 min per session, 3 times a week, 6 weeks, 18 sessions | Projection screen + mirror | Passive observing moving | No, combined with therapeutic exercise | Physical therapists: Therapeutic exercise | Fatigue; dizziness while viewing placebo VW video on the second session (n = 1) |
Özkul et al.23 | Simultaneous observation of an avatar walking with the patient’s own body; followed by a 1-week washout period and subsequent application of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation | Active control: Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for 2 weeks, 1 week washout, then VW | Virtual avatar; 15 min per session, 5 times per week, 2 weeks, 10 sessions | Projection screen + mirror | Passive observing moving | No, combined with Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation | NR | NR |
Gustin et al.17 | Observation and controlling the walking avatar, translating arm movements to leg movements using handheld controller in a virtual environment from 1st-perspective, with incentivization for progress | / | Virtual avatar (1st-person view); 20 min per session, 10 days within 2 weeks | Head-Mounted Display (HTC Vive) | Arm swing locomotion | Yes | Research assistant: Set up equipment in peoples’ homes | None |
Jordan et al.21 | Simultaneous viewing of 1st-person views walking video and imagining themselves performing the movement | Virtual illusion; 20 min in total | 3D monitor | Passive observing moving | Yes | NR | NR | |
Landmann et al.22 | Observation of computer-generated overlay of animated legs on their upper body, walking in forest from a 3rd-person view | / | Virtual illusion; twice a week for five weeks (or 5 times per week for 2 weeks), 10 sessions | Projection screen + build-in camera | Passive observing moving | Yes | Therapist: Supervision & support | Long sleep period after the third treatment, and a feeling like a blackout or memory lapse after waking up (n = 1) |
López-Carballo et al. 201814 | Test trial: Observation of algorithm-generated overlay of a recorded walking legs on their upper body to create walking illusion with arm swing used to control gait cycle in a virtual environment, incentivized by matching target speed plus | Virtual illusion; 20 min per session, 10 sessions | Computer Screen | Arm swing locomotion | No, combined with Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation | NR | NR | |
Clinical trial: Group 1: Simultaneous observation of the illusion of walking legs and the patient’s own upper body Group 2: Same as the test trial | / | Virtual illusion; 20 min per session, 10 sessions | Group 1: Projection screen + mirror, Group 2: Same as the test trial | Group 1: Passive observing moving Group 2: Same as the test trial | No, combined with Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation | NR | NR | |
Richardson et al.24 | Simultaneous viewing of 1st-person views walking video and imagining themselves performing the movement | Active control: Same actor propelling a manual wheelchair along the same path | Virtual illusion; 20 min per session, 1 session in total | 3D monitor | Passive observing moving | Yes | Examiner: Played video | NR |
Roosink et al.25 | Experience interactive and static virtual walking, combined with imagining themselves walking while swinging their arms | / | Virtual avatar & illusion; 90 min per session, 2 weeks, 2 sessions | 3D glasses+ Silver-coated projection screen | Passive observing moving | Yes | NR | Increased transient musculoskeletal pain (n = 1), physical fatigue (n = 4), and difficulties to maintain attention (n = 2) |
Soler et al.2 | The system combines patient’s upper body own and an animated digital image representing the movement of walking legs or movement of arms | Inactive control: Monitoring the stability of pain measurement | Virtual illusion; 20 min per session, for 2 weeks, 10 sessions | Projection screen + Red-Green-Blue Depth camera | Passive observing moving | No, combined with Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation | NR | Mild headache (mainly in the first session) (n = 6), some feeling tired, a transient increase in neurological pain (n = 2) at the end of treatment |
Trost et al.16 | Observation of walking avatar from 1st-person view, controlling movement by translating arm movements to leg movements using wireless handheld controller in a virtual environment, with incentivization through walking | Active control: Observing a pre-record video-like progression in 1st-person view of virtual walking | Virtual avatar; 30 min per session 2 gameplay, 10 days, 20 sessions | Head-Mounted Display (HTC Vive) | Arm swing locomotion | Yes | Research assistant: Set up equipment in peoples’ homes | NR |
Villiger et al.26 | Simultaneous legs movement execution and observation in 1st person view in four virtual games. One scenario “Activity of Daily living”, subjects alternately lift their feet to make the virtual avatar walking | / | Virtual avatar; 30–45 min per session, 4 weeks, 16–20 sessions | Computer screen | Foot Tracking Locomotion | Yes | Therapist: Supervision and collect data | NR |
Yilmaz et al.27 | Simultaneous viewing of 1st-person views walking video filmed by a cameraman walking naturally through an Irish forest, participants imagined themselves walking | Active control: Traditional physical therapy | Virtual illusion; 15 min per session, 2 weeks, 10 sessions | Video glasses (Vuzix Wrap 920) | Passive observing moving | Yes | Physiotherapist: Supervision patient’s exercises | NR |
