Fig. 3: Data characteristic across various datasets.

a A circular barplot illustrates the range of data modalities and validation splits across multiple datasets. The innermost ring uses distinct colors to represent different medical imaging modalities (orange for CT; blue for MR; yellow for PET-CT; green for SRX). The second ring differentiates between internal and external datasets, with darker shades indicating internal datasets and lighter shades representing external datasets. The outermost layer displays a bar chart that showcases the distribution of segmented object types across the datasets, with quantities log-scaled for optimal visualization. b Data fingerprints exhibit the key properties of the 44 datasets used in this study (displayed with z-score normalization over all datasets on a scale of one standard deviation around the mean). See Supplementary Tables S1–S4 for details. The gray bar on the right of each fingerprint encodes the dataset modality, with dark gray positions indicating the active modality corresponding to the legend at the bottom right (e.g., the top block in dark gray denotes CT).