Fig. 8: Suturing task end-effector motion efficiency.

a Communication latency progressively increased instrument path length without DTVA. DTVA significantly reduced trajectory length across all latency levels, with greater relative improvement at higher delays. Consistent with peg-transfer tasks. The shaded area is formed by connecting error bars representing the standard deviation. b Average velocity decreased significantly with increasing communication latency in both control and DTVA conditions. Unlike its effect on trajectory optimization, DTVA implementation failed to significantly alter average velocity across all latency levels. Notably, the suturing task exhibited more pronounced velocity reduction than peg-transfer tasks as latency increased.