Fig. 5: Orchard plots for the full complex model showing the effects of MAS on ecological metrics.

a–c, Effects on the abundance (a), biomass (b) and diversity (c) of fish and invertebrates, compared to natural sedimentary habitat (top) and to natural reef (bottom). For each plot, the coloured bubbles represent individual effect sizes from studies, the circled dots represent the estimated mean Hedges’ g values, the bold error bars represent the 95% CIs, and the thin error bars represent the 95% prediction interval. k represents the number of effect sizes included for each group; in brackets is the number of studies they originated from. Asterisk denotes groups for which significant effects were detected. Note that some groups had low to extremely low sample sizes; hence estimates may not reflect true effect sizes. The starfish icon was obtained from pngwing.com. The fish, oil rig, offshore wind farm, shipwreck and artificial reef icons were made by DinosoftLabs, Freepik, Ultimatearm, Amethyst prime and Eucalyp, respectively, all from www.flaticon.com.