Fig. 3: Causal paths between the ecosystem disservice (EDS) of hyperparasitism and different predictors.
In the SEM analysis, EDS is the ultimate response variable, while hyperparasitoid richness and diversity and food web vulnerability (Vq) are both predictors and response variables. Non-crop habitat (NCH) and secondary crop cover (SC) are exogenous variables. The paths reveal both direct and indirect cascading relationships between predictors and response variables. a Shows the paths after removing all nonsignificant paths. Standardized coefficients are shown for each path and scaled as line width. Black and red lines indicate either positive or negative relationships, with solid lines representing significant effects and dotted lines showing nonsignificant effects (*P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001). R2 shows the explanatory proportion of the total variance for each response variable in the model (Supplementary Table 12). b–d Show the significant relationships based on SEM analysis, with solid lines and shaded zones indicative of regression lines and 95% confidence intervals (n = 25), respectively.
