Fig. 1: A new theoretical framework–Multi-Dimensional Management of Multiple Pests (3MP)–enabling a nuanced and holistic approach to the management of multiple pests across the cropping season.

The first dimension of the framework is “space”. Soil environment manipulation, crop resistance (constitutive and/or induced), and crop diversification are engineered to provide bottom-up forces, influencing not only the second trophic level but also reaching the third trophic level and influencing top-down forces. Natural enemy release and conservation through functional plants contribute to top-down forces. The combined action of both forces works synergistically to lower pest prevalence. The second dimension of the framework is “time”. Pest 1 could be a plant pathogen persisting across the season, while Pest 2 and 3 could be insect pests appearing during the early and late seasons, respectively, and potentially serving as disease vectors. Indirect interactions among these pests, or between pests and pathogens, may impact the sign and magnitude of bottom-up and top-down forces on pest prevalence. This allows for a more precise manipulation of these ecological drivers to enhance the synergy and coverage of pest management in a given crop system. Arthropod natural enemies (predators and parasitoids) could target a wide range of insect pest species throughout the season. Functional plants, often non-crop plants, provide shelter and/or non-prey supplementary food to nourish arthropod natural enemies, such as flowering plants and banker plants. The framework also incorporates arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and addresses greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Other independent pest control tactics include sanitation recommendations (timely removal of infested plants/plant organs), sensory cue-based mass trapping (SCMT) using lure-and-kill methods based on sex pheromones, artificial diet, and light, as well as mating disruption. Both bottom-up and top-down forces can manifest as direct or indirect effects, represented by solid and dashed lines, respectively. Research endeavors within this framework yield additional environmental benefits, including biodiversity conservation in agroecosystems, reduced environmental pollution, and climate change mitigation and adaptation in agro-ecosystems. This holistic approach aligns with sustainable agriculture practices and contributes to the overall well-being of ecosystems and agricultural landscapes.