Fig. 4: Different considerations of scale during the design and manufacture of a bioinformed material.

a Different species can exhibit different solutions to a similar functional need. For example, adaptations for surface adhesion can be observed in small invertebrates such as beetles and spiders, as well as larger vertebrates such as geckos. Differences in individual adhesion strategies can reflect differences in scale as different forces dominate at each scale. b Biological materials are often complex and hierarchical and can comprise multiple adaptations at different scales. For example, not only are the microscopic setae on each toepad important for adhesion, but the muscles, tendons, and digit orientation have a significant effect on overall surface attachment^96,97. c Biologically informed solutions can be applied at different scales depending on the desired performance of the material. It is important to evaluate how a shift in scale may change the effectiveness of a biological solution applied to materials. d The manufacture of a material can also present challenges depending on its scale; for example, not every nanoscale structure can be easily mass produced. Image of gecko foot is in the public domain from Wikipedia Commons by David Clements. Silhouette images from unsplash.com.