Fig. 6: Failure mechanisms and interfacial engineering strategies for advanced anode materials.

a Schematic diagrams showing the typical problems that occur in anodes, including: (i) surface passivation, i.e., the formation of inactive metal due to side reactions, which significantly hinders charge transfer and reduces cycling stability (reproduced with permission⁷³, Copyright 2021, RSC), (ii) microcrack-induced pulverization of the anode material, which leads to the formation of electrically isolated (“dead”) regions (reproduced with permission⁷⁴ under a CC-BY license, Copyright 2024, AAAS), and (iii) progressive degradation of the SEI layer under repeated cycles, which promotes the formation of dead anode material and dendrite growth (reproduced with permission⁷⁵, Copyright 2022, Wiley). b Examples of approaches for overcoming various limitations via interfacial engineering strategies, including: (i) protective coating of the anode material with a CP, e.g., a PPy coating on SiO, to provide enhanced electrical conductivity and a high lithium-ion transfer rate (reproduced with permission⁷⁶, Copyright 2024, Elsevier), (ii) the introduction of an artificial SEI layer into an Si-based anode to provide high conductivity and mechanical stability(reproduced with permission⁷⁷, Copyright 2022, Wiley), and (iii) the use of a porous 3D host structure (e.g. N-doped carbon) with high surface area as a scaffold for deposition of the anode material, thereby inhibiting dendrite formation, which would otherwise harm the electrochemical performance (reproduced with permission⁷⁸, Copyright 2022, Wiley).