Fig. 3: Energy transduction mechanisms in liquid and ice/snow forms.

a Flow-driven Electromagnetics: Mechanical rotation of a shaft, driven by liquid flow, spins a rotor with permanent magnets past stationary coils to generate electromagnetic energy. b Flow-resonant Electrical Polarization: Mechanical movement of piezoelectric cantilevers induced by fluid flow, leading to electrical polarization and energy generation. c Solid–Solid Contact Electrification: Generation of electrical charge through triboelectric effects during contact and separation of solid materials induced by wave motion. d Liquid-Solid Contact Electrification: Generation of electrical charge when solid and liquid surfaces contact and separate. e Droplet-driven Contact Electrification: Conversion of the kinetic and interfacial energy of falling or sliding droplets into electrical energy through contact and separation processes. f Snow-Geothermal Seebeck Conversion: Generating electrical energy by exploiting temperature differences between geothermal heat sources and snow or ice acting as the cold sink in thermoelectric systems. g Impact-induced Polarization: Generation of electrical signals through mechanical interactions between solid precipitation (like hail or ice) and structural surfaces. h Ice-surface Contact Electrification: The transfer of electrical charge occurs when ice or hail contacts a dielectric surface and separates.