Fig. 7: Schematic diagram showing dust provenance changes in JX and corresponding surface processes.

The basemap was produced by an open-source software GMT⁶³. The regional topography was produced by the SRTM datasets⁶⁴. The yellow star indicates the location of the Jiaxian site (JX). a Stage I: Similar contributions from erosion of local basement (Cretaceous sandstone overlying the North China Craton) and distal source (Qilian Shan of northeastern Tibetan Plateau). b Stage II: Increased Qilian Shan exhumation and global cooling increased distal contribution. c Stage III: Decreased Qilian Shan exhumation and climatic wetting decreased erosion and distal contribution. Following uplift in the Lanzhou area and possible rerouting of the upper Yellow River course⁴⁴, more northeastern Tibetan Plateau-derived sediments were routed towards the Yinchuan-Hetao graben. However, climate warming and wetting promoted lacustrine environments to prevail⁴⁵. Thus, northeastern Tibetan Plateau-derived sediment was temporarily stored in the paleolake(s) in the Yinchuan-Hetao graben, resulting in decreased distal contribution and dust accumulation rate. d Stage IV: Climatic dry-wet fluctuations amplified, resulting in increased erosion and release of trapped sediments in the Yinchuan-Hetao graben, increasing the distal contribution. e Stage V: Following the onset of intensive Northern Hemisphere glaciations, increased wet-dry contrast in comparison with the Pliocene increased river erosion, and released more unconsolidated sediments from the local basement. Climatic fluctuation amplitude increase promoted middle Yellow River incision, resulting in a connection between the middle and upper Yellow River. Increased erosion of the Lüliang Shan by frost wedging and other weathering processes enhanced during glacial intervals resulted in more production of unconsolidated sediment.