Fig. 1: Comparison of the four considered modeling frameworks.

Four modeling frameworks translating tropical cyclone storm surge into coastal flood extents are compared: (i) the shallow-water equation solver GeoClaw⁵⁴ employs storm track data to dynamically calculate coastal water level time series (hydrographs) and coastal flood extents in a single modeling step (GeoClaw, bold solid lines), (ii) the full-scale physical ocean model GTSM⁵⁵ is used to calculate coastal hydrographs from meteorological reanalysis data (ERA5¹²⁰), which are then employed to calculate inundated areas with the static inundation model Aqueduct⁴² (GTSM + Aqueduct, dotted lines), (iii) the fully static flood module implemented in CLIMADA⁴³ employs a statistical-surge relationship to translate storm track data directly into flood extents (CLIMADA, thin solid lines), (iv) to test the impact of dynamically resolving inundation processes, the static Aqueduct model is driven by GeoClaw’s coastal hydrographs to calculate coastal flood extents (GeoClaw + Aqueduct, dashed lines). Arrows indicate the order in which the different models are executed.