Fig. 5: CH4 cycling pathways and associated gene abundances in different treatments.

a KEGG methanogenesis pathways, including hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis and acetoclastic methanogenesis. b KEGG methanotrophy pathways, including anaerobic CH4 oxidation and aerobic CH4 oxidation. c Abundance of CH4 cycle-related enzymes. d Abundance of methanogenesis (mcrA) and main methanotrophy genes (pmoA and ANME-3). In panels a, b, enzyme names are color-coded according to functional groups and match the colors used in panel c. In panel d, data are presented as means ± standard error (n = 3). Abbreviations are explained in Supplementary Table 3.